In Defense of a Liberal Education

InDefenseofa

LiberalEducation

FAREEDZAKARIA

W.W.NORTON&COMPANYNewYork•London

Formychildren,

Omar,Lila,andSofia

Wearedrowningininformation,whilestarvingforwisdom.Theworldhenceforthwillberunby

synthesizers,peopleabletoputtogethertherightinformationattherighttime,thinkcriticallyaboutit,and

makeimportantchoiceswisely.

—E.O.Wilson

Contents
1:ComingtoAmerica
2:ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation
3:LearningtoThink
4:TheNaturalAristocracy
5:KnowledgeandPower
6:InDefenseofToday’sYouth
Notes
Acknowledgments

InDefenseofa

LiberalEducation

ComingtoAmerica

IFYOUWANTtoliveagoodlifethesedays,youknowwhatyou’resupposed

todo.Getintocollegebutthendropout.Spendyourdayslearningcomputer

scienceandyournightscoding.Startatechnologycompanyandtakeitpublic.

That’sthenewAmericandream.Ifyou’renotquitethatadventurous,youcould

majorinelectricalengineering.

Whatyouarenotsupposedtodoisstudytheliberalarts.Aroundtheworld,

theideaofabroad-based“liberal”educationiscloselytiedtotheUnitedStates

anditsgreatuniversitiesandcolleges.ButinAmericaitself,aliberaleducation

isoutoffavor.Inanagedefinedbytechnologyandglobalization,everyoneis

talkingaboutskills-basedlearning.Politicians,businesspeople,andevenmany

educatorsseeitastheonlywayforthenationtostaycompetitive.Theyurge

studentstostopdreamingandstartthinkingpracticallyabouttheskillstheywill

needintheworkplace.Anopen-endedexplorationofknowledgeisseenasa

roadtonowhere.

Aclassicliberaleducationhasfewdefenders.Conservativesfumethatitis

too,well,liberal(thoughthetermhasnopartisanmeaning).Liberalsworryitis

tooelitist.Studentswonderwhattheywoulddowithadegreeinpsychology.

Andparentsfearthatitwillcostthemtheirlifesavings.

Thisgrowinguneaseisapparentinthenumbers.Ascollegeenrollmenthas

growninrecentdecades,thepercentageofstudentsmajoringinsubjectslike

Englishandphilosophyhasdeclinedsharply.In1971,forexample,7.6percent

ofallbachelor’sdegreeswereawardedinEnglishlanguageandliterature.By

2012,thatnumberhadfallento3.0percent.Duringthesameperiod,the

percentageofbusinessmajorsintheundergraduatepopulationrosefrom13.7to

20.5.

Somebelievethispatternmakessense—thatnewentrantsintohigher

educationmightsimplypreferjobtrainingtotheliberalarts.Perhaps.Butin

earlierperiodsofeducationalexpansion,thiswasnotthecase.Inthe1950sand

1960s,forinstance,studentssawcollegeasmorethanaglorifiedtradeschool.

Newcomers,oftenfromlower-middle-classbackgroundsandimmigrantfamilies

withlittleeducation,enthusiasticallyembracedtheliberalarts.Theysawitasa

gatewaytoacareer,andalsoasawaytoassimilateintoAmericanculture.“I

havetospeakabsolutelyperfectEnglish,”saysPhilipRoth’scharacterAlex

Portnoy,thesonofimmigrantsandheroofthenovelPortnoy’sComplaint.

MajorslikeEnglishandhistorygrewinpopularitypreciselyduringthedecades

ofmassgrowthinAmericanhighereducation.

ThegreatdangerfacingAmericanhighereducationisnotthattoomany

studentsarestudyingtheliberalarts.Herearethedata.Inthe2011–12academic

year,52percentofAmericanundergraduateswereenrolledintwo-yearorless-

than-two-yearcolleges,and48percentwereenrolledinfour-yearinstitutions.At

two-yearcolleges,themostpopularareaofstudywashealthprofessionsand

relatedsciences(23.3percent).Anadditional11.7percentofstudentsstudied

business,management,andmarketing.Atfour-yearcolleges,thepatternwasthe

same.Businessledthelistofmajors,accountingfor18.9percentofstudents,

andhealthwassecond,accountingfor13.4percent.Anotherestimatefoundthat

onlyathirdofallbachelor’sdegreerecipientsstudyfieldsthatcouldbe

classifiedastheliberalarts.Andonlyabout1.8percentofallundergraduates

attendclassicliberalartscollegeslikeAmherst,Swarthmore,andPomona.

Asyoucansee,wedonothaveanoversupplyofstudentsstudyinghistory,

literature,philosophy,orphysicsandmathforthatmatter.Amajorityis

specializinginfieldsbecausetheyseethemasdirectlyrelatedtothejobmarket.

It’struethatmoreAmericansneedtechnicaltraining,andallAmericansneed

greaterscientificliteracy.Butthedrumbeatoftalkaboutskillsandjobshasnot

luredpeopleintoengineeringandbiology—noteveryonehastheaptitudefor

science—somuchasithasmadethemnervouslyforsakethehumanitiesand

takecoursesinbusinessandcommunications.Manyofthesestudentsmightwell

havebeenbetterofftakingaricher,deepersetofcoursesinsubjectstheyfound

fascinating—andsupplementingit,asweallshould,withsomebasicknowledge

ofcomputersandmath.Inanyevent,whatisclearisthatthegapintechnical

trainingisnotbeingcausedbythesmallpercentageofstudentswhochoose

four-yeardegreesintheliberalarts.

Whateverthefacts,theassaultscontinueandhavemovedfromtherealmof

rhetorictoaction.ThegovernorsofTexas,Florida,NorthCarolina,and

Wisconsinhaveannouncedthattheydonotintendtokeepsubsidizingtheliberal

artsatstate-fundeduniversities.“Isitavitalinterestofthestatetohavemore

anthropologists?”Florida’sRickScottasked.“Idon’tthinkso.”Wisconsinis

planningtocutmoneyfromsubjectsthatdon’ttrainstudentsforaspecificjob

rightoutofcollege.“HowmanyPhDsinphilosophydoIneedtosubsidize?”the

radioshowhostWilliamBennettaskedNorthCarolina’sPatrickMcCrory,a

sentimentwithwhichMcCroryenthusiasticallyagreed.(Ironically,Bennett

himselfhasaPhDinphilosophy,whichappearstohavetrainedhimwellforhis

multiplecareersingovernment,media,nonprofits,andtheprivatesector.)

Itisn’tonlyRepublicansontheoffensive.Everyone’seagertopromotethe

typeofeducationthatmightleaddirectlytoajob.InaspeechinJanuary2014,

PresidentBarackObamasaid,“Ipromiseyou,folkscanmakealotmore,

potentially,withskilledmanufacturingorthetradesthantheymightwithanart

historydegree.”Helaterapologizedforwhathedescribedasa“glib”comment,

butObamahasexpressedsimilarsentimentsduringhispresidency.Hisconcern

—thatintoday’sworld,collegegraduatesneedtofocusonthetoolsthatwillget

themgoodjobs—issharedbymanyliberals,aswellasconservativesand

independents.Theirrelevanceofaliberaleducationisanideathathasachieved

thatrarestatusinWashington:bipartisanagreement.

Theattackshaveaneffect.Thereistodayalossofcoherenceandpurpose

surroundingtheideaofaliberaleducation.Itsproponentsaredefensiveaboutits

virtues,whileitsopponentsareconvincedthatitisatbestanexpensiveluxury,

atworstactivelycounterproductive.DoesitreallymakesensetostudyEnglish

intheageofapps?

Inasense,thequestionisun-American.Formuchofitshistory,America

wasdistinctiveinprovidinganeducationtoallthatwasnotskillsbased.Intheir

comprehensivestudyofeducation,theHarvardeconomistsClaudiaGoldinand

LawrenceKatznotethat,historically,Britain,France,andGermanytested

childrenatayoungage,educatedonlyafew,andputthemthroughanarrow

programdesignedspecificallytoimpartasetofskillsthoughttobekeytotheir

professions.“TheAmericansystem,”theywrite,“canbecharacterizedasopen,

forgiving,lackinguniversalstandards,andhavinganacademicyetpractical

curriculum.”AmericadidnotembracetheEuropeanmodelofspecifictraining

andapprenticeshipsbecauseAmericansmovedconstantly,tonewcities,

counties,andterritoriesinsearchofnewopportunities.Theywerenotrootedin

geographiclocationswithlong-establishedtradesandguildsthatofferedthe

onlypathforward.Theywerealsopartofaneconomythatwasnewand

dynamic,sothattechnologykeptchangingthenatureofworkandwithitthe

requirementsforjobs.Fewwantedtolockthemselvesintoasingleindustryfor

life.Finally,GoldinandKatzargue,whileageneraleducationwasmore

expensivethanspecializedtraining,thecostfortheformerwasnotpaidby

studentsortheirparents.TheUnitedStateswasthefirstcountrytopubliclyfund

mass,generaleducation,firstatthesecondary-schoollevelandthenincollege.

Evennow,highereducationinAmericaisamuchbroaderandricheruniverse

thananywhereelse.Todayahighschoolstudentcangotooneoffourteen

hundredinstitutionsintheUnitedStatesthatofferatraditionalbachelor’s

degree,andanotherfifteenhundredwithamorelimitedcourseofstudy.Goldin

andKatzpointoutthatonapercapitabasis,Britainhasonlyhalfasmany

undergraduateinstitutionsandGermanyjustone-third.Thosewhoseekto

reorientU.S.highereducationintosomethingmorefocusedandtechnicalshould

keepinmindthattheywouldbeabandoningwhathasbeenhistorically

distinctive,evenunique,intheAmericanapproachtohighereducation.

Andyet,Igetit.IunderstandAmerica’scurrentobsession.Igrewupin

Indiainthe1960sand1970s,whenaskills-basededucationwasseenastheonly

pathtoagoodcareer.Indiansinthosedayshadanalmostmysticalfaithinthe

poweroftechnology.Ithadbeenembeddedinthecountry’sDNAsinceitgained

independencein1947.JawaharlalNehru,India’sfirstprimeminister,was

ferventinhisfaithinbigengineeringprojects.HebelievedthatIndiacould

moveoutofitseconomicbackwardnessonlybyembracingtechnology,andhe

dideverythinghecouldduringhisfourteenyearsinofficetoleavethatstampon

thenation.AFabiansocialist,NehruhadwatchedwithadmirationastheSoviet

Unionjump-starteditseconomyinjustafewdecadesbyfollowingsuchapath.

(Leninoncefamouslyremarked,“CommunismisSovietpowerplusthe

electrificationofthewholecountry.”)NehrudescribedIndia’snewhydroelectric

damsas“templesofthenewage.”

IattendedaprivatedayschoolinBombay(nowMumbai),theCathedraland

JohnConnonSchool.WhenfoundedbyBritishmissionariesintheVictorianera,

theschoolhadbeenimbuedwithabroad,humanisticapproachtoeducation.It

stillhadsomeofthatoutlookwhenIwasthere,butthecountry’smoodwas

feverishlypractical.The1970swasatoughdecadeeverywhereeconomically,

butespeciallyinIndia.Andthoughitwasaprivateschool,thetuitionwaslow,

andCathedralcateredtoabroadcrosssectionofthemiddleclass.Asaresult,all

mypeersandtheirparentswereanxiousaboutjobprospects.Theassumption

madebyalmosteveryoneatschoolwasthatengineeringandmedicinewerethe

twobestcareers.Therealquestionwas,whichonewouldyoupursue?

Atagesixteen,wehadtochooseoneofthreeacademicstreams:science,

commerce,orthehumanities.Wealltookasetofboardexamsthatyear—a

remnantoftheBritisheducationalmodel—thathelpeddetermineourtrajectory.

Inthosedays,thechoiceswereobvious.Thesmartkidswouldgointoscience,

therichkidswoulddocommerce,andthegirlswouldtakethehumanities.

(ObviouslyI’mexaggerating,butnotbythatmuch.)Withoutgivingthetopic

muchthought,Istreamedintothesciences.

Attheendoftwelfthgrade,wetookanothersetofexams.Thesewerethe

bigones.Theydeterminedoureducationalfuture,aswewereremindedagain

andagain.Gradesinschool,classparticipation,extracurricularprojects,and

teachers’recommendations—allweredeemedirrelevantcomparedtotheexam

scores.Almostallcollegesadmittedstudentsbasedsolelyonthesenumbers.In

fact,engineeringcollegesaskedforscoresinonlythreesubjects:physics,

chemistry,andmathematics.Similarly,medicalschoolswouldaskforresultsin

justphysics,chemistry,andbiology.NoonecaredwhatyougotinEnglish

literature.TheIndianInstitutesofTechnology(IITs)—themostprestigious

engineeringcollegesinthecountry—narrowedtheadmissionscriteriaeven

further.Theyadministeredtheirownentrancetest,choosingapplicantsentirely

onthebasisofitsresults.

Theincreasedemphasisontechnologyandpracticalityinthe1970swasin

partduetodomesticfactors:inflationhadsoared,theeconomyhadslumped,and

theprivatesectorwascrippledbynationalizationsandregulations.Anotherbig

shift,however,tookplacefarfromIndia’sborders.Untilthe1970s,thetop

BritishuniversitiesofferedscholarshipstobrightIndianstudents—alegacyof

theraj.ButasBritainwentthroughitsownhellisheconomictimesthatdecade

—placedunderformalreceivershipin1979bytheInternationalMonetaryFund

—moneyforforeignscholarshipsdriedup.Inanearlierera,someofthe

brightestgraduatesfromIndiamighthavegoneontoOxford,Cambridge,and

theUniversityofLondon.Withoutoutsidemoneytopayforthateducation,they

stayedhome.

Butculturefollowspower.AsBritain’seconomicdeclinemadeits

universitieslessattractive,collegesintheUnitedStateswererisinginwealth

andambition.Atmyschool,peoplestartedtonoticethatAmericanuniversities

hadbegunofferinggenerousscholarshipstoforeignstudents.Andwesoon

begantohearfromearlytrailblazersaboutthedistinctlyAmericanapproachto

learning.AfriendfrommyneighborhoodwhohadgonetoCornellcamebackin

thesummersburstingwithenthusiasmabouthistimethere.Hetoldusofthe

incrediblevarietyofcoursesthatstudentscouldtakenomatterwhattheirmajor.

Healsotoldtalesoftherichnessofcollegelife.Irememberlisteningtohim

describeafilmsocietyatCornellthatheldscreeningsanddiscussionsofclassics

byIngmarBergmanandFedericoFellini.IhadneverheardofBergmanor

Fellini,butIwasamazedthatwatchingmovieswasconsideredanintegralpart

ofhighereducation.Couldcollegereallybethatmuchfun?

Myparentsdidnotpushmetospecialize.Myfatherhadbeendeeply

interestedinhistoryandpoliticseversincehewasayoungboy.Hehadbeen

orphanedatayoungagebutmanagedtogetfinancialassistancethatputhim

throughhighschoolandcollege.In1944,hereceivedascholarshiptoattendthe

UniversityofLondon.Hearrivedduringtheworstoftheblitzkrieg,with

GermanV-2rocketsrainingdownonthecity.OnthelongboatridetoEngland,

thecrewtoldhimhewascrazy.Onememberevenasked,“Haven’tyoureadthe

newspapers?PeopleareleavingLondonbythethousandsrightnow.Whywould

yougothere?”Butmyfatherwasdeterminedtogetaneducation.Historywas

hispassion,andheworkedtowardaPhDinthatsubject.Butheneededaclearer

pathtoaprofession.So,inaddition,heobtainedalawdegreethatwouldallow

himtobecomeabarristeruponhisreturntoBombay.

Thoughmymotherwasraisedinbettercircumstances,shealsofaceda

setbackatayoungage—herfatherdiedwhenshewaseight.Shebrieflyattended

acollegeunusualforIndiaatthetime—aliberalartsschoolinthenorthernpart

ofthecountrycalledtheIsabellaThoburnCollege,foundedin1870byan

AmericanMethodistmissionaryofthatname.Thoughhereducationwascut

shortwhenshereturnedhometolookafterherwidowedmother,mymother

neverforgottheplace.Sheoftenfondlyreminiscedaboutitsbroadandengaging

curriculum.

Myparents’careerswerevariedanddiverse.Myfatherstartedoutasa

lawyerbeforemovingintopoliticsandlaterfoundingavarietyofcolleges.He

alsocreatedasmallmanufacturingcompany(topaythebills)andalwayswrote

booksandessays.Mymotherbeganasasocialworkerandthenbecamea

journalist,workingfornewspapersandmagazines.(Sheresignedfromherlast

positioninjournalismlastyear,2014,attheageofseventy-eight.)Neitherof

theminsistedonearlyspecialization.Inretrospect,myparentsmusthave

worriedaboutourfutureprospects—everyoneelsewasworried.Buttoourgood

fortune,theydidnotprojectthatparticularanxietyonus.

Mybrother,Arshad,tookthefirstbigstep.HewastwoyearsolderthanIand

fantasticallyaccomplishedacademically.(Hewasalsoaverygoodathlete,

whichmadefollowinginhisfootstepschallenging.)Hehadthekindofscoreson

hisboardexamsthatwouldhaveeasilyplacedhiminthetopengineering

programsinthecountry.OrhecouldhavetakentheIITexam,whichhe

certainlywouldhaveaced.Infact,hedecidednottodoanyofthatandinstead

appliedtoAmericanuniversities.Acoupleofhisfriendsconsidereddoingthe

same,butnoonequiteknewhowtheprocessworked.Welearned,forexample,

thatapplicantshadtotakesomethingcalledtheScholasticAptitudeTest,butwe

didn’tknowmuchaboutit.(Remember,thisis1980inIndia.Therewasno

Google.Infact,therewasnocolortelevision.)Wefoundapamphletaboutthe

testattheUnitedStatesInformationService,theculturalbranchoftheU.S.

embassy.ItsaidthatbecausetheSATwasanaptitudetest,therewasnoneedto

studyforit.So,mybrotherdidn’t.Onthedaythetestwasscheduled,hewalked

intothemakeshiftexamcenterinBombay,analmostemptyroominoneofthe

localcolleges,andtookthetest.

It’sdifficulttoconvincepeopletodayhownovelandriskyanideaitwasat

thetimetoapplytoschoolsintheUnitedStates.Thesystemwasstillforeign

anddistant.Peopledidn’treallyknowwhatitmeanttogetintoagoodAmerican

universityorhowthatwouldtranslateintoacareerinIndia.TheHarvardalumni

inBombayinthe1970swerebynomeansa“Who’sWho”oftheinfluentialand

wealthy.Rather,theywereaneclecticmixofpeoplewhoeitherhadspenttime

abroad(becausetheirparentshadforeignpostings)orhadsomeconnectionto

America.AfewfriendsofourshadventuredtotheUnitedStatesalready,but

becausetheyhadn’tyetgraduatedorlookedforjobs,theirexperienceswereof

littleguidance.

MybrotherhadnoideaiftheadmissionsdepartmentsatAmericancolleges

wouldunderstandtheIndiansystemorknowhowtointerprethisreportcards

andrecommendations.HealsohadnorealPlanB.Ifhedidn’ttaketheslot

offeredbyengineeringschools,hewouldn’tbeabletogetbackinlinethenext

year.Infact,thingsweresouncleartousthatwedidn’tevenrealizeAmerican

collegesrequiredapplicationsafullyearinadvance.Asaresult,heinvoluntarily

tookagapyearbetweenschoolandcollege,waitingaroundtofindoutwhether

hegotinanywhere.

Asithappened,Arshadgotineverywhere.Hepickedthetopoftheheap—

acceptingascholarshipofferfromHarvard.Whilewewereallthrilledand

impressed,manyfriendsremainedapprehensivewhentoldthenews.Itsounded

prestigioustosayyouweregoingtoattendHarvard,butwouldtheeducation

actuallytranslateintoacareer?

MymothertraveledtotheUnitedStatestodropmybrotheroffinthefallof

1981,anuneasytimeinAmericanhistory.Themoodwasstillmore1970s

malaisethan1980sboom.Thecountrywasinthemidstoftheworstrecession

sincetheGreatDepression.VietnamandWatergatehadshatteredthenation’s

confidence.TheSovietUnionwasseenasascendantinourminds.Riots,

protests,andurbanviolencehadturnedAmericancitiesintoplacesofgenuine

danger.OurimagesofNewYorkcamefromCharlesBronsonmoviesandnews

reportsofcrackandcrime.

AllofthiswasespeciallyalarmingtoIndians.Thecountry’straditional

societyhadinterpretedthe1960sand1970sasaperiodofdecayinAmerican

culture,asyoungpeoplebecamemorallylax,self-indulgent,permissive,and,

perhapsmostworrisome,rebellious.TheideathatAmericanyouthhadbecome

disrespectfultowardtheirelderswasutterlyunnervingtoIndianparents.Most

believedthatanychildwhotraveledtotheUnitedStateswouldquicklycast

asidefamily,faith,andtraditionforsex,drugs,androckandroll.Ifyousent

yourkidstoAmerica,youhadtobraceyourselvesfortheprospectthatyou

might“lose”them.

Inhisfirstfewweeksabroad,Arshadwas,probablylikeallnewcomersto

Harvard,abitnervous.Mymother,ontheotherhand,returnedfromhertrip

clearofanyanxiety.ShewasenchantedwiththeUnitedStates,itscollege

campuses,andtheundergraduateexperience.Sheturnedherobservationsintoan

articlefortheTimesofIndiatitled“TheOtherAmerica.”Init,shedescribed

howconcernedshehadbeenbeforethetripaboutpermissiveness,drugs,and

rebellionatAmericancolleges.Shethenwentontoexplainhowimpressedshe

wasafteractuallyspendingtimeonacampustofindthattheplacefocusedon

education,hardwork,andextracurricularactivities.Thestudentsshemetwere

bright,motivated,and,tohersurprise,quiterespectful.Shemetparentswho

weretearfullybiddingtheirchildrengood-bye,talkingabouttheirnextvisit,or

planningaThanksgivingreunion.“IfeelIaminIndia,”shewrote.“Couldthis

betheheartlessAmericawherefamilytieshavelosttheirhold?”

IndianshaditallwrongabouttheUnitedStates,mymothercontinued.She

triedtoexplainwhytheyreadsomuchbadnewsaboutthecountry.“Americais

anopensocietyasnoother.Sotheyexposetheir‘failings’tooasnoother,”she

wrote.“[Americans]cheerfullyjoininthetalkoftheirowndecline.Butthe

declineisrelativetoAmerica’sownpreviousstrength.Itremainstheworld’s

largesteconomy;itstilldisposesofthegreatestmilitarymighttheworldhas

known;refugeesfromterrorstillcontinuetoseekshelterinthislandof

immigrants.Itspendsmillionsofdollarsinthehopethatsomeone,somewhere

maymakeavaluablecontributiontoknowledge.Americaremainstheyardstick

bywhichwejudgeAmerica.”Asyoucansee,shewashooked.

Inthoseyears,itwasfashionableineliteIndiancirclestodenouncethe

UnitedStatesforitsimperialismandhegemony.DuringtheColdWar,theIndian

governmentroutinelysidedwiththeSovietUnion.IndiraGandhi,thepopulist

primeminister,wouldoftenblameIndia’stroublesonthe“foreignhand,”a

referencetotheCIA.Butmymotherhasalwaysbeenstubbornlypro-American.

Whenmyfatherwasalive,hewouldsometimescriticizeAmericaforitscrimes

andblunders,partlytoneedlemybrotherandmeandpartlybecause,asonewho

hadstruggledforIndia’sindependence,hehadabsorbedtheworldviewofhis

closestallies,whowereallontheleft.Yetmymotherremainedunmoved,

completelyconvincedthattheUnitedStateswasalandofamazingvitalityand

virtue.(Isuspectit’swhathashelpedheracceptthefactthathersonschosethe

countryastheirhome.)

Alongwithphotographsandinformationbrochuresfromhertrip,mymother

alsobroughtbackHarvard’scoursebook.Forme,itwasanastonishing

document.Insteadofathinpamphletcontainingadrylistofsubjects,asone

wouldfindatIndianuniversities,itwasabulgingvolumeoverflowingwith

ideas.Itlistedhundredsofclassesinallkindsoffields.Andthecourse

descriptionswerewrittenlikeadvertisements—asiftheteacherswantedyouto

jointhemonanintellectualadventure.Ireadthroughthebook,amazedthat

studentsdidn’thavetochooseamajorinadvanceandthattheycouldtake

poetryandphysicsandhistoryandeconomics.Fromeightthousandmilesaway,

withlittleknowledgeandnoexperience,Iwasfallinginlovewiththeideaofa

liberaleducation.

Idecidedtofollowinmybrother’sfootstepsanddidn’tpursuetheIndian

optionsavailabletome.ItooktheSATandwrotetherequiredessaysand

applications.IfyouhadaskedmewhyIwassodeterminedtogototheUnited

States,Icouldn’thavegivenyouacoherentresponse.Indianuniversitiesseemed

limitingandlimited.IthoughtaboutapplyingtoBritishuniversities,butIwould

haveneededascholarshipandfewexisted.Theideaof“reading”justone

subjectatOxfordoranarrowsetofsubjectsatCambridgeseemedless

interestingwhencomparedwiththedazzlingarrayofopportunitiesattheIvy

Leagueschools.And,ofcourse,therewastheallureofAmerica.

IhadalwaysbeenfascinatedbyAmerica.Ihadvisitedonceasateenager,

butmostofmyknowledgeaboutthecountrycamefromHollywood.Whilethe

Indianmarketwastoopooranddistanttogetanynewlyreleasedmovies,we

watchedtheoneswewouldget,afewyearsdelayed—anythingfromThe

PoseidonAdventuretoKramervs.Kramer—aswellasoldclassics,likethe

LaurelandHardycomedies,whichIloved.Televisionarrivedinthecountryin

themid-1970s,initiallywithjustonegovernment-runblack-and-whitechannel

thatmostlyaireddocumentariesonthegloriesofIndianagriculture.Every

Sundaynight,myfamilywouldgatheraroundthetelevisionsettowatchtheone

unadulteratedpieceofentertainmentitwouldair,aBollywoodmovie.Preceding

thatwasasingleepisodeofILoveLucy,presumablyallthatIndiantelevision

couldaffordtoimportfromtheUnitedStates.Everyonewatcheditwith

pleasure,laughingalongwithLucyandhercrazyfamily.Tothisday,Ihavea

softspotforthatshow.

Bythelate1970s,technologyhadbeguntobringmoreoftheWesttoIndia.

Afewofmyfriendshadvideorecorders,andafterawhile,sodidwe.Itwas

impossibletoacquireactualcopiesofAmericanmoviesandshows,butwedid

getmanybootleggedversions.SomewhereintheUnitedStates,arelativewould

tapethelatesttelevisionshowsandsendthemtothefamilybackhome.These

bootleggedBetamaxtapeswouldbepassedaroundinBombaylikesamizdat

publicationsintheSovietUnion.

ThehottestshowatthetimewasDallas,whichwealldevoured.Thescenes

duringtheopeningcreditsweremywindowintotheAmericandream:shining

shotsofgleamingskyscrapers,helicopterslandinginofficeparks,meninten-

gallonhatsgettinginandoutofcavernousCadillacs.AndVictoriaPrincipal—

shewascertainlypartofmyAmericandream.Whateverthenewspaperssaid

aboutproblemsintheUnitedStates,whocouldbelieveitwiththeseimages

flashingacrossthescreen?Americaseemedvast,energetic,andwealthy.

EverythinghappenedinTechnicolorthere.

TheU.S.InformationService,setuptopromoteAmericancultureandideas

duringtheColdWar,wouldholdscreeningsofolderAmericanclassics.Afriend

andIwouldoftenattendtheseshowings.There,inasmallroominBombay,

sittingamidagingexpats,IwasintroducedtoHollywood’sgoldenage.Ikepta

scrapbookonthesemovies,fromItHappenedOneNighttoAdamandEveto

HowtheWestWasWon.Inasense,theyweremyfirstrealintroductionto

Americanhistory.Andtheyaddedtomysenseofthecountryastheworld’s

mostexcitingplace.

Letmebehonest,though:whilethesoftattractionwasgreat,sowasthecold

cash.Myparentswerewell-paidprofessionals,butIndiawasoneofthepoorest

countriesintheworld.Theirannualsalariescombinedwouldhaveequaledjust

halfofoneyear’stuitionabroad.Atthetime,Americancollegesdidnotoffer

need-blindadmissionstoforeignstudentslikeme—theschoolsallhadmuch

smallerendowmentsinthosedays—buttheydiddistributemeritscholarships.

Andifyouwereadmitted,theyworkedoutacombinationofgrants,loans,and

on-campusjobsthatwouldallowyoutoattend.Mybrother’sreportsfrom

Harvardwerethatbetweenhisscholarshipandacampusjob,hewasmakingdo

quitewell.Heevenhadenoughmoneyforbooksandincidentalexpenses.Yet

realizingthatIneedednotonlyadmissionbutalsoascholarshipaddedtomy

anxiety.

IgotveryluckyandendedupgoingtoYale.Ihavenoideawhytheyletme

inorwhyIchosetogothere.Imarveltodayatcollege-boundAmericankids

whotaketwoorthreetripstocampuses,sitinonclasses,havelongdiscussions

withcounselors,andwatchstudenttheaterproductions—alltodecidewhereto

gotocollege.Incomparison,Imadeanutterlyuninformedchoicefromhalfway

aroundtheworld.Ididn’tgetintoHarvard,butIwasfortunatetobeableto

choosebetweenPrincetonandYaleandcouldn’treallydecide.Iknewlittle

abouteither.IfImadealistofeachuniversity’sobjectivemerits,whichIdid,

Princetonusuallycameoutontop.Itwassmallerandricherandhadofferedme

abiggerscholarship.EveryonehadheardofitinIndiabecauseofAlbert

Einstein.VeryfewknewofYale.Thisseemshardtobelieve,butYalereallywas

quiteobscureinIndia.Myfather,likemanyIndians,couldn’tpronouncethe

name,andtohisdyingdayhecalledit“Ale.”Ingeneral,Americanuniversities

thathavegreatnamerecognitioninIndia—andinAsiamoregenerally—are

thosewithstrongengineeringprograms,sciencedepartments,andbusiness

schools.ThesewerenotYale’sstrengths.

Eventually,IdecidedtousetheonlymechanismIcouldthinkof:acointoss.

Heads,IwouldgotoYale;tails,IwouldgotoPrinceton.Iflippedthecoin.It

wastails.SoIdecidedtomakeita“bestofthree”andtossedagain.Idon’t

rememberifYalewonthecointossatthatpointorifIkeptgoinguntilitdid.

Butindoingtheexercise,IrealizedthatIwantedtogotoYale.Idon’tquite

knowwhy.Itisanexampleofthepowerofintuition.Thoughobviouslybothare

greatinstitutions,Yalewastheperfectplaceforme.Iknewsomethingatthe

timethatIcouldn’texplainorevenunderstand.

Yaleofferedthen,andstilldoesnow,arigorousfirst-yearacademicprogram

calledDirectedStudies.ItisasweepingsurveyoftheWesternliteraryand

philosophicaltraditionfromancientGreecetomodernity.Thisseemedlikea

wonderfulopportunityforakidfromIndia.Itwouldhaveintroducedmetoa

numberofgreatWesternclassicsthatIhadheardaboutbutneverread.Youhad

toapplytobeabletotakethecourses,whichIdid.Somemonthslater,Iwas

thrilledtogetanoteinformingmethatIhadbeenacceptedintotheprogram.

Ichickenedout.WhenIgottoYale,itwastimeformetofinalizemy

choices.ItalliedupthesubjectsthatIbelievedIhadtotake—courseslikemath,

computerprogramming,andphysics—andrealizedthatifIweregoingtoenroll

inDirectedStudies,itwouldfillupmostofmyschedule.Ipanickedattheidea

ofcommittingsocompletelytosomethingthatseemedsoimpractical.I

rememberthinkingtomyself,“WhenpeopleaskmeinIndiaoverthesummer

aboutmycourses,Icouldtalkaboutcomputersandmath.HowwouldIexplain

this?”SoIdroppedDirectedStudiesandsignedupforcoursesthatseemedmore

sensible.

Inmyfirstyear,however,Iallowedmyselftopickoneclasssimplyoutof

sheerinterest.ThecoursewasapopularlectureonthehistoryoftheColdWar,

taughtbyapoliticalscienceprofessornamedH.BradfordWesterfield.His

lectureswerepackedwithvividdetailsanddeliveredwithgusto.Iwashooked.

Internationalpoliticsandeconomicshadalwaysappealedtome.Asa

teenagerinIndia,Iwouldavidlyreadthemajorinternationalnewspapersand

magazines,whichsometimesarrivedweeksaftertheywerepublished.Thegreat

globaldramaofthetimeswastheclashofthesuperpowers,anditechoedin

India,acountrythatwastornbetweenthetwocamps.Irememberdevouringthe

excerptsofHenryKissinger’smemoirswhentheycameout,thoughI’msureI

didn’tunderstandthem.(Iwasfifteenatthetime.)YetIneverthoughtthatone

studiedthesekindsofsubjectsincollege.IhadassumedthatIwouldmajorin

somethingthatwaspractical,technical,andjoboriented.Icouldalwaysread

newspapersontheside.Westerfield’scourse,however,mademerealizethatI

shouldtakemypassionseriously,evenwithoutbeingsurewhatitmightleadto

intermsofaprofession.Thatspring,Ideclaredmymajorinhistory.Iwasgoing

togetaliberaleducation.

Butstill,Icouldn’thaveansweredthequestion,whatisaliberaleducation?

ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation

FORMOSTOFhumanhistory,educationwasjobtraining.Hunters,farmers,

andwarriorstaughttheyoungtohunt,farm,andfight.Childrenoftheruling

classreceivedinstructionintheartsofwarandgovernance,butthistoowas

intendedfirstandforemostaspreparationfortherolestheywouldassumelater

insociety,notforanybroaderpurpose.Allthatbegantochangetwenty-five

hundredyearsagoinancientGreece.

Priortothechange,educationinGreecehadcenteredonthedevelopmentof

arête,roughlymeaningexcellenceorvirtue.ThescholarBruceKimballnotes

thatthecourseofstudylargelyinvolvedthememorizationandrecitationof

Homericepicpoetry.*Throughimmersionintheworldofgodsandgoddesses,

kingsandwarriors,childrenwouldmastertheGreeklanguageandimbibethe

lessons,codes,andvaluesconsideredimportantbytherulingelite.Physical

trainingwasacrucialelementofGreekeducation.Inthecity-stateofSparta,the

mostextremeexampleofthisfocus,youngboysconsideredweakatbirthwere

abandonedtodie.Therestweresenttogruelingbootcamps,wheretheywere

toughenedintoSpartansoldiersfromanearlyage.

AroundthefifthcenturyBC,someGreekcity-states,mostnotablyAthens,

begantoexperimentwithanewformofgovernment.“Ourconstitutioniscalled

ademocracy,”theAthenianstatesmanPericlesnotedinhisfuneraloration,

“becausepowerisinthehandsnotofaminoritybutofthewholepeople.”This

innovationingovernmentrequiredasimultaneousinnovationineducation.

Basicskillsforsustenancewerenolongersufficient—citizensalsohadtobe

properlytrainedtoruntheirownsociety.Thelinkbetweenabroadeducation

andlibertybecameimportanttotheGreeks.Describingthisapproachto

instructioncenturieslater,theRomanscoinedatermforit:a“liberal”education,

usingthewordliberalinitsoriginalLatinsense,“oforpertainingtofreemen.”

Morethantwothousandyearslater,FrederickDouglasssawthesame

connection.WhenhismasterheardthatyoungFrederickwasreadingwell,he

wasfurious,saying,“Learningwillspoilthebestniggerintheworld.Ifhe

learnstoreadtheBibleitwillforeverunfithimtobeaslave.”Douglassrecalled

thathe“instinctivelyassentedtotheproposition,andfromthatmomentI

understoodthedirectpathwayfromslaverytofreedom.”

Fromthebeginning,peopledisagreedoverthepurposeofaliberal

education.(Perhapsintellectualdisagreementisinherentintheideaitself.)The

firstgreatdividetookplaceinancientGreece,betweenPlato,thephilosopher,

andIsocrates,theorator.Platoandhisfollowers,includingAristotle,considered

educationasearchfortruth.InspiredbySocrates,theyusedthedialecticmode

ofreasoninganddiscoursetopursueknowledgeinitspurestform.Isocrates,on

theotherhand,hearkenedbacktothetraditionofarête.Heandhisfollowers

believedapersoncouldbestarriveatvirtueandmakeagoodlivingbystudying

theartsofrhetoric,language,andmorality.Thisdebate—betweenthosewho

understandliberaleducationininstrumentaltermsandthosewhoseeitasanend

inandofitself—hascontinuedtothepresentday.

Ingeneral,themorepracticalrationaleforliberaleducationgainedtheupper

handintheancientworld.Yetthetwotraditionshaveneverbeenmutually

exclusive.TheRomanstatesmanandphilosopherCicero,oneoftheearliest

writersonrecordtousethetermartesliberales,wantedtocombinethesearch

fortruthwithrhetoric,whichwasseenasamoreusefulskill.“Foritisfrom

knowledgethatoratorymustderiveitsbeautyandfullness,”thephilosopher-

statesmanwrotearound55AD.Whiledebatecontinues,therealityisthatliberal

educationhasalwayscombinedamixtureofbothapproaches—practicaland

philosophical.

Sciencewascentraltoliberaleducationfromthestart.Exceptthatinthose

days,thereasontostudyitwasthepreciseoppositeofwhatisarguedtoday.In

theancientworld,andformanycenturiesthereafter,sciencewasseenasapath

toabstractknowledge.Ithadnopracticalpurpose.Humanisticsubjects,like

languageandhistory,ontheotherhand,equippedtheyoungtofunctionwellin

theworldaspoliticians,courtiers,lawyers,andmerchants.AndyettheGreeks

andRomansstudiedgeometryandastronomyalongsiderhetoricandgrammar.

InthefirstcenturyBC,thisdualisticapproachtoeducationwas“finallyand

definitivelyformalized”intoasystemdescribedas“thesevenliberalarts.”The

curriculumwassplitbetweenscienceandhumanities,thetheoreticalandthe

practical.Centurieslater,itwasoftendividedintotwosubgroups:thetrivium—

grammar,logic,andrhetoric—wastaughtfirst;thequadrivium—arithmetic,

geometry,music,andastronomy—camenext.

Soldiersandstatesmen,naturally,placedgreateremphasisonsubjectsthey

thoughtofaspractical—whattodaywewouldcallthehumanities.Butevenso,

theideaofabroadereducationalwayspersisted.Intheeighthcentury,

Charlemagne,kingoftheFranks(aGermanictribethatinhabitedlargechunks

ofpresent-dayGermany,France,Belgium,Netherlands,andLuxembourg),

consolidatedhisempire.BruceKimballnotesthatCharlemagnethenestablished

apalaceschoolandnamedasitsmasterAlcuin,anEnglishscholar(eventhen

Englishmenweretheidealheadmasters).Alcuinandhisfollowersconcentrated

ongrammarandtextualanalysisanddemotedmathematics,buttheycontinued

toteachsomeversionoftheliberalarts.Andthedeeperquestforunderstanding

neverdisappeared.EvenduringtheDarkAges,medievalmonasterieskeptalive

atraditionoflearningandinquiry.

WhydidEuropeanlearningmovebeyondmonasteries?Oneinfluencemight

havebeenIslam,themostadvancedcivilizationintheMiddleAges—something

difficulttoimaginetoday.WithintheworldofIslamthereweredozensof

madrasas—schoolswherehistory,politics,science,music,andmanyother

subjectswerestudiedandwhereresearchwaspursued(thoughnotallIslamic

educationalinstitutionswerecalledmadrasas).Islamiclearningproduced

innovations,especiallyinthestudyofmathematics.Algebracomesfromthe

Arabphraseal-jabr,meaning“thereunionofbrokenparts.”Thenameofthe

Persianscholaral-KhwārizmīwastranslatedintoLatinasalgoritmi,which

became“algorithm.”Bytheeleventhcentury,Cairo’sal-AzharandBaghdad’s

Nizamiyahwerefamousacrosstheworldfortheiracademicaccomplishments,

asweremanyothercentersoflearningintheArabworld.ThisIslamicinfluence

foundahomeintheMuslimregionsofcontinentalEuropeaswell,inthe

madrasasofMoorishSpain,inGranada,Córdoba,Seville,andelsewhere.

BythelateMiddleAges,Europe’sstagnationwasending.Theexpansionin

globaltradeandtravelmeantthatitsleadersneededgreaterknowledgeand

expertiseinareaslikegeography,law,andscience.Ascity-statescompetedwith

oneanothereconomically,theysoughtoutindividualswithbetterskillsand

education.Becauseofitslongcoastline,Italybecameaplacewherecommerce,

trade,andcapitalismwerebeginningtostir.Groupsofscholarsstartedcoming

togetherinvariousItaliancitiestostudytheology,canonandcivillaw,andother

subjects.Thesescholarscamefromgreatdistancesandwereoftengroupedby

theirgeographicalorigins,eachonebeingcalleda“nation,”anearlyuseofthe

word.Someofthese“nations”hiredlocalscholars,administeredexams,and

joinedtogetherintogroupsthatcametobecalleduniversitas.These

organizationssoughtandweregrantedspecialprotectionsfromlocallaws,thus

allowingthemnecessaryfreedomsandautonomy.

In1088,Europe’sfirstuniversitywasfoundedinBologna.Overthenext

century,similarinstitutionssproutedupinParis,Oxford,Cambridge,andPadua.

By1300,westernEuropewashometobetweenfifteenandtwentyuniversities.

Theseschoolswereinitiallynotbastionsoffreeinquiry,buttheydidbecome

placeswherescholarsdiscussedsometaboosubjects,recovered,translated,and

studiedAristotle’swritings,andsubjectedlawstoclosescrutiny.Yetmost

researchtookplaceoutsideofuniversitiesinthosedaysbecauseoftheir

religiousinfluence.Itwasheretical,forinstance,forscientiststospeculateon

earth’splaceamidthestars.Inmostcities,whilestudentswereaccordedsomeof

thesamefreedomsandexemptionsastheclergy,theydesiredevenmore.The

UniversityofPadua’smottowasUniversauniversispatavinalibertas—“Paduan

freedomisuniversalforeveryone.”

Inthefourteenthcentury,thebalancebetweenpracticalandphilosophical

knowledgeshiftedagain.SomeItalianscholarsandwritersbelievedthat

universitieshadbecometoospecialized.TheylookedtoreturnEuropean

educationtoitsGreekandRomanroots.Thesehumanistsrejectedthehighly

detailed,scholasticapproachtolearningandtheologythatwaspervasivein

medievaluniversities.Instead,asthelatescholarPaulOskarKristellernotes,

theyencourageda“revivalofartsandofletters,ofeloquenceandoflearning”

that“ledtoanewandintensifiedstudyofancientliteratureandhistory.”Over

thenexttwocenturies,whathasbeencalledRenaissancehumanismspreadto

therestofEurope.

Thesetraditionsofscholarship,however,didnotcreatetheexperiencewe

nowthinkofasaliberaleducation.Thatmoderntraditionhadlesstodowith

universitiesandmorewithcolleges.And“collegeasweknowit,”writes

ColumbiaUniversityprofessorAndrewDelbanco,“isafundamentallyEnglish

idea.”†TheearliestEnglishcollegeswerefoundedinthethirteenthcenturyfor

scholarsofdivinitywhoseduties,Delbanconotes,“includedcelebratingmass

forthesoulofthebenefactorwhohadendowedthecollegeandtherebyspared

themfrommenialwork.”Religiousinfluenceswerestrong—thepubliclecture,

forinstance,wasasecularoutgrowthoftheSundaysermon—thoughthe

curriculumwasvariedandincludednon-theologicalsubjects.

Collegesgrewmoresecularbythenineteenthcenturyasseminariesassumed

responsibilityfortrainingministers.Theyalsobegantodevelopacharacter

distinctfromEuropeanuniversities,whichwerebecomingincreasinglyfocused

onresearch,especiallyinGermany.Unlikeuniversities,whichoftenlackeda

clearphysicalembodiment,collegesweredefinedbytheirarchitecture.An

imposingstonebuildingwasusuallyconstructedwithanopencourtyardinthe

centerandstudentdormitoriesarrayedaroundit.The“common”roomwas

wherestudentscouldmeet,thechapelwheretheycouldpray,andthelibrary

wheretheycouldread.ThismodelofaresidentialcollegeoriginatedinEngland

andspreadtotheAnglo-Americanworld,whereitremainsthedistinctiveform

forundergraduates.

Intheearlytwentiethcentury,amongthemajoruniversities,Harvardand

Yaleadoptedthefull-fledgedresidentialcollegemodelforstudenthousing,

partlyinanefforttoretaintheintimatesettingofliberalartscollegeswhile

pursuingtheirambitionstobecomegreatresearchuniversities.Theresidential

collegehascometobeseenaspossessingcertainqualitiesthatenhancethe

experienceofliberaleducationbeyondthecurriculum.Theadvantagesofsuch

anarrangementareoftendescribedtodayintermslike“living-learning

experiences,”“peer-to-peereducation,”and“laterallearning.”SamuelEliot

Morison,thelegendaryhistorianofHarvard,bestdescribedthedistinctive

benefitsoftheresidentialsetting:“Booklearningalonemightbegotbylectures

andreading;butitwasonlybystudyinganddisputing,eatinganddrinking,

playingandprayingasmembersofthesamecollegiatecommunity,incloseand

constantassociationwitheachotherandwiththeirtutors,thatthepricelessgift

ofcharactercouldbeimparted.”Anemphasisonbuildingcharacter,stemming

fromthereligiousoriginsofcolleges,remainsanaimofliberalartscolleges

almosteverywhere,atleastintheory.

America’searliestcollegesweremodeledontheirEnglishpredecessors.

ManyofthefoundersofHarvardCollege,forexample,weregraduatesof

EmmanuelCollegeatCambridgeUniversity.Perhapsbecause,inAmerica,they

didnotstartoutstrictlyasseminaries,colonialcollegesoftenincorporatedinto

theircurriculaavarietyofdisciplines,includingthesciences,humanities,and

law.Studentswereexpectedtotakeallthesesubjectsandrelatethemtoone

anotherbecauseitwasassumedtherewasasingle,divineintelligencebehindall

ofthem.InCardinalJohnNewman’snineteenth-centuryformulationofthis

approachtoeducation,“Thesubject-matterofknowledgeisintimatelyunitedin

itself,asbeingtheactsandtheworkoftheCreator.”Itwasatheologicalversion

ofwhatphysiciststodaycalltheunifiedfieldtheory.

America’sfirstcollegesstucktocurriculathatcouldbedescribedasGodand

Greeks—theologyandclassics.Butagreatdebateoverthisapproachemergedat

thebeginningofthenineteenthcentury.Peoplewonderedwhystudentsshould

berequiredtostudyancientGreekandLatin.Theysuggestedthatcolleges

shouldbegintoincorporatemodernlanguagesandsubjectsintotheirinstruction.

Afterall,thecountrywasgrowingrapidlyanddevelopingeconomicallyand

technologically,makingthecollegecourseofstudyseemantiquatedin

comparison.Aftermuchdeliberation,theYalefacultyissuedareportin1828

defendingtheclassicalcurriculum.ItpowerfullyinfluencedAmericancolleges

forhalfacentury—delaying,somemightsay,theirinevitableevolution.Italso,

however,outlinedacentraltensioninliberaleducationthatpersiststillnow.

TheYalereportexplainedthattheessenceofliberaleducationwas“notto

teachthatwhichispeculiartoanyoneoftheprofessions;buttolaythe

foundationwhichiscommontothemall.”Itdescribeditstwogoalsintermsthat

stillresonate:trainingthemindtothinkandfillingthemindwithspecific

content.

Thetwogreatpointstobegainedinintellectualculture,arethedisciplineandthefurnitureofthe

mind;expandingitspowers,andstoringitwithknowledge.Theformeroftheseis,perhaps,the

moreimportantofthetwo.Acommandingobject,therefore,inacollegiatecourse,shouldbe,tocall

intodailyandvigorousexercisethefacultiesofthestudent.Thosebranchesofstudyshouldbe

prescribed,andthosemodesofinstructionadopted,whicharebestcalculatedtoteachtheartof

fixingtheattention,directingthetrainofthought,analyzingasubjectproposedforinvestigation;

following,withaccuratediscrimination,thecourseofargument;balancingnicelytheevidence

presentedtothejudgment;awakening,elevating,andcontrollingtheimagination;arranging,with

skill,thetreasureswhichmemorygathers;rousingandguidingthepowersofgenius.

Thoughitsparticularaimhistoricallywastodefendtheclassicalcurriculum,

theYalereport’sbroaderargumentwasthatlearningtothinkismoreimportant

thanthespecifictopicsandbooksthataretaught.AHarvardmanrevivedthe

argumentfiftyyearslater,ashebattledtoundothereport’srecommendations.

CharlesEliotwasanunlikelycandidateforthepresidencyofHarvard.He

wasascientistatatimewhentheheadsofschoolslikeHarvard,Yale,and

Princetonwerestillgenerallyministers.AftergraduatingfromHarvardin1853,

Eliotwasappointedtobeatutorandlateranassistantprofessorofmathematics

andchemistryattheschool.Buthewasnotmadeafullprofessorashehad

hoped,andataboutthesametime,hisbadluckcompoundedashisfather’s

fortunecollapsed.EliotdecidedtotraveltoEurope,wherehesawfirsthandthe

rapidlychangingstateofhighereducationontheContinentandtheriseofthe

greatresearchuniversitiesinGermany.HethenreturnedtotheUnitedStatesto

takeupaprofessorshipattheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnologyin1865.At

thetime,likemanyothercolleges,Harvardwasinthemidstofatumultuous

periodinitshistory.Itfacedcallsformorevocationaleducationinorderto

prepareAmericansfortheworkforceintherapidlyindustrializingeconomyjust

emergingfromtheCivilWar.

Toaddresstheseconcerns,Eliotpennedatwo-partessayintheAtlantic

Monthlytitled“TheNewEducation.”Itbeganwithwordsthatcouldbeuttered

byanyparenttoday,adjustedforgender:“WhatcanIdowithmyboy?Ican

afford,andamglad,togivehimthebesttrainingtobehad.Ishouldbeproudto

havehimturnoutapreacheroralearnedman;butIdon’tthinkhehasthe

makingofthatinhim.Iwanttogivehimapracticaleducation;onethatwill

preparehim,betterthanIwasprepared,tofollowmybusinessoranyother

activecalling.”Eliot’sanswerwasthatAmericansneededtocombinethebest

developmentsoftheemergingEuropeanresearchuniversitywiththebest

traditionsoftheclassicAmericancollege.

EliotproposedthatAmerica’sgreatuniversitiesembracetheresearch

function,butthattheydosoatthegraduatelevel,leavingundergraduatesfreeto

exploretheirinterestsmorebroadly.Heshowedastrongunderstandingand

masteryoftheemergingtrendsineducation,likethedifferencebetween

scientificandhumanisticfieldsandtheriseintechnicaltraining.Hewanted

collegestodistinguishcarefullybetweenaskills-basedandaliberaleducation,

thelatterofwhichheconsideredmoreimportant.Monthsafterhisessayswere

published,attheageofthirty-five,CharlesEliotwasofferedthepresidencyof

Harvard,apostthatheheldforfourdecades—exactly—andfromwhichhe

reshapedtheuniversityandthecountry.

EliotmadesomanytransformingchangesatHarvardthattheyare

impossibletorecount—heessentiallyestablishedthemodernAmerican

university.Yetperhapshismostinfluentialreform,atleastforundergraduates,

washisadvocacyforacurriculumbasedonthe“spontaneousdiversityof

choice.”Inotherwords,underhisnewsystem,studentshadveryfewrequired

coursesandmanyelectives.PreviouslyinAmericancolleges,muchofthe

curriculumhadbeensetinstone.Studentshadenrolledincoursesandstudied

topicsinapredeterminedsequencefromoneyeartothenext.Thefacultyhad

believed,inthetermsoftheYalereport,thatitshouldchoose“thefurniture”that

wastoinhabitthestudents’minds.

Eliotdisagreedprofoundly.Hewasprobablyinfluencedbyhis

Protestantism,whichsawtheindividualasthebestmediatorofhisownfate.But

perhapsmorethananything,hewasimbuedwiththespiritofRalphWaldo

EmersonandhisdistinctivelyAmericanideas,whichweredeeplyinfluentialat

thetime.ForEmerson,thetaskofeveryhumanbeingwastofindhisorher

voiceandgiveexpressiontoit.“Trustthyself,”Emersonwrotein“Self-

Reliance.”“Everyheartvibratestothatironstring.”Emerson’snotionofthe

importanceofauthenticity,asopposedtoimitation,andhispraiseofunique

thinkingcouldhavebeenturnedintocopyforAppleadcampaigns(“Think

Different”).

Inan1885speech,Eliotoutlinedthecaseforhiselectivesystemusing

languagethatremainsradicaltoday—andwithwhichmanyparentsmightstill

disagree.“AteighteentheAmericanboyhaspassedtheagewhenacompulsory

externaldisciplineisuseful,”Eliotwrote.“Awell-instructedyouthofeighteen

canselectforhimself—notforanyotherboy,orforthefictitiousuniversalboy

butforhimselfalone—abettercourseofstudythananycollegefaculty,orany

wisemanwhodoesnotknowhimandhisancestorsandhispreviouslife,can

possiblyselectforhim.”EliotbelievedthatAmericanliberaleducationshould

allowyoutochooseyourowncourses,exciteyourownimagination,andthus

realizeyourdistinctiveself.Manyrespondedthatsomesubjectsarenotworthy

ofbeingtaught.Thesolution,hebelieved,wastoletfacultymembersofferwhat

theywantandstudentstotakewhattheylike.

Eliot’sviewswerenotsharedbymanyinfluentialeducatorsofthetime,most

notablythepresidentofPrinceton,JamesMcCosh.(Infact,Eliot’sspeechthatI

quotefromabovewasfromapublicdebatewithMcCoshonthetopicinNew

YorkCity.)AScottishministerandphilosopher,McCoshthoughtthat

universitiesshouldprovideaspecificframeworkoflearningandahierarchyof

subjectsfortheirstudents—orelsetheywerefailingintheirroleasguardians.In

particular,religioncouldnotsimplybetreatedlikeanyothersubject,tobetaken

ordroppedatanundergraduate’swhim.Eliot’sideas,however,weremorein

syncwithAmericancultureanditsemphasisonindividualismandfreedomof

choice.Overtime,theelectivesysteminsomeformoranotherhascometo

dominateAmericanhighereducation,withafewnotableexceptions.

Intheearlyyearsofthetwentiethcentury,aswellinthetideofimmigrants

enteringtheUnitedStatespromptedconcernamongsomecitizens,educators,

andpublicofficialsthatthecountrywaslosingitscharacter.Againstthat

backdrop,anEnglishprofessoratColumbiaUniversity,JohnErskine,began

offeringatwo-yearcoursecalledGeneralHonorsin1920.Erskine“wantedto

provideyoungpeoplefromdifferentbackgroundswithacommonculture,

somethinghethoughtwasalreadythinintheUnitedStates,”writestheHarvard

scholarLouisMenand.Erskinebelievedthatthebestwaytobecometruly

educatedwastoimmerseoneselfingreatworksofthepast.

In1930,MortimerAdler,aneducatorwhohadtaughtasectioninErskine’s

program,leftColumbiafortheUniversityofChicago.HisfriendRobert

MaynardHutchinshadrecentlybeenappointedpresidentoftheschool,andthe

twobeganteachingaseminartogetherforunderclassmenonclassicworksinthe

Westerncanon.Thecourseevolvedintoa“greatbooks”program—acore

curriculuminwhichstudentsreadprescribedworksofhistory,literature,and

philosophyandthengatherforsmall-groupdiscussionsguidedbyfaculty

members.Severalyearslater,twoprofessorsnamedStringfellowBarrandScott

BuchananmovedfromChicagotoSt.John’sCollegeinAnnapolistostarttheir

owngreat-booksprogram.BarrandBuchananradicallyalteredthe

undergraduatecurriculumatthesmallschoolwiththetraditionofsevenliberal

artsinmind.Evensciencewastaughtfromagreat-booksperspective,reading

classicaccountsthatwere,inmanyways,outdatedorhadbeensuperseded.The

programleftnoroomforelectives.

Bythe1930sand1940s—perhapsbecausetheimmigranttidehadreceded

withtheintroductionofnationalquotasin1921and1924—interestinthe

commoncorewaned.Today,about150schoolsintheUnitedStatesoffersome

kindofcoreprogrambasedongreatbooks,thoughveryfewrequirethatall

undergraduatestakeit,asColumbia,Chicago,andSt.John’sdo.

Whateveritsmerits,theideaofacurriculumbasedonsomesetofgreat

bookshasalwaysbeendebated.Ina1952essay,Hutchins,whocouldbe

consideredthefatherofthegreat-booksmovement,madewhathasbecomea

familiarcaseforit.“UntillatelytheWesthasregardeditasself-evidentthatthe

roadtoeducationlaythroughgreatbooks,”Hutchinswrote.“Nomanwas

educatedunlesshewasacquaintedwiththemasterpiecesofhistradition.”Times

havechanged,butpoliticalandsocialchangescannot“invalidatethetraditionor

makeitirrelevantformodernmen,”heinsisted.Exceptthat,aswehaveseen,

thisaccountisnotentirelytrue.Everyonewhohaseversetupagreat-books

programbaseditonthebeliefthat,inthegoodolddays,peopleusedtostudya

setofagreed-uponclassics.Infact,fromthestartofliberaleducation,therewere

disputesoverwhatmen(andwomen)shouldreadandhowmuchorhowlittle

freedomtheyshouldhavetofollowtheircuriosity.MarthaNussbaum,a

philosopherattheUniversityofChicago,arguesthattheSocratictraditionof

inquirybyitsnaturerejectedanapproachdependent“oncanonicaltextsthathad

moralauthority.”Shewrites,“Itisanironyofthecontemporary‘culturewars’

thattheGreeksarefrequentlybroughtonstageasheroesinthe‘greatbooks’

curriculaproposedbymanyconservatives.Forthereisnothingonwhichthe

Greekphilosophersweremoreeloquent,andmoreunanimous,thanthe

limitationsofsuchcurricula.”

I’vefoundthatmyownviewsonthissubjecthavechangedovertime,from

mydaysasanundergraduate,thenasateacheringraduateschool,andnowasa

parent.Incollege,Iwasattractedtotheideaofacommoncore—thoughIdidn’t

endupstudyingone.AndyetIwishedIhadmoreofagroundinginsomeareas,

andfoundmyselfplayingcatch-up.Whenteachingundergraduatesinthe1980s,

Iwasstrucknotonlybyhowbrighttheywerebutalsobyhowlittletheyknew

about,say,thebasicoutlinesofAmericanhistory.Theycouldanalyze

everythingplacedinfrontofthem,butifyouaskedthemtoputsixeventsin

chronologicalorder,theywouldgetmanyofthemwrong.Ithoughtitwouldbe

worthwhiletorequireexposuretoasetoffactsorbooks—furnitureforthemind

—thatwouldgivestudentsafoundationfromwhichtothenroamfreely.And

theyhadroomtoroam.Remember,mostadvocatesofacoredonotconsiderit

sufficientforaliberaleducation.TheprogramsatColumbiaandChicagoallow

formanyelectives.Proportionally,thecorerepresentsonlyapartoftheoverall

curriculum.

Therearealsosocialbenefitstoacommoncore.Allstudentsareableto

shareanintellectualexperience.Theycandiscussittogether,joininitsdelights,

andcommiserateoveritsweaknesses.It’sultimatelyabondingopportunity.

“OncetheyhavegonethroughtheCore,”writesDelbanco,referringto

Columbia’sprogramspecifically,“nostudentisacompletestrangertoany

other.”Thatsenseofbeingpartofalargergroupbecomesevenmoreusefullater

inlife,whenoneisexpectedtoworkwithone’speersandcolleaguestoward

commongoalsinaprofessionalsetting.Ascampusesgetmorediverseand

studentsspendtimepursuingmorenarrowlyfocusedstudiesandhighlytargeted

extracurricularactivities,somethingneedstodefinethecollectiveeducational

experience.

Istillsympathizewithargumentsinsupportofacore,butIhavecometo

placeagreatervaluethanIoncedidontheopennessinherentinliberal

education—theabilityforthemindtorangewidelyandpursueinterestsfreely.

Inmyownexperience,thecoursesItooksimplybecauseIfeltIneededtoknow

somesubjectmatteroracquireculturalliteracyhavefadedinmymemory.Those

thatItookoutofgenuinecuriosityorbecauseIwasinspiredbyagreatteacher

haveleftamorelastingandpowerfulimpression.Afterall,onecanalwaysread

abooktogetthebasicinformationaboutaparticulartopic,orsimplyuse

Google.Thecrucialchallengeistolearnhowtoreadcritically,analyzedata,and

formulateideas—andmostofalltoenjoytheintellectualadventureenoughtobe

abletodothemeasilyandoften.

Lovingtolearnisagreaterchallengetodaythanitusedtobe.I’vewatched

mychildrengrowupsurroundedbyanamazingcornucopiaofentertainment

availableinstantlyontheircomputers,tablets,andphones.Perhapssoonthese

pleasureswillbehardwiredintotheirbrains.Therichness,variety,andallureof

today’sgames,televisionshows,andvideosaredazzling.Manyareamazingly

creative,andsomeareintellectuallychallenging—therearesmartvideogames

outthere.Butallaredesignedtogetchildrenenrapturedand,eventually,

addicted.Theall-consumingpowerofmodernentertainmentcanturnsomething

thatdemandsactiveandsustainedengagement,likereadingandwriting,intoa

chore.

Andyetreading—especially,Iwouldargue,readingbooks—remainsoneof

themostimportantpathstorealknowledge.Therearefewsubstitutesto

understandinganissueindepththanreadingagoodbookaboutit.Thishasbeen

trueforcenturies,andithasnotchanged.Andkidsneedtoenjoyreading—not

justseeitasthethingtheirparentsmakethemdobeforetheycanplayvideo

gamesorwatchatelevisionshow.IfhavingteenagersreadPhilipRoth’s

Goodbye,ColumbusratherthanJaneAusten’snovelsmakesthismorelikely,so

beit.Idon’tdecryorcondemnnewformsofentertainmentandtechnology.

Theyopenupnewvistasofknowledgeandwaysofthinking.Ourchildrenwill

besmarterandquickerthanusinmanyways.Butagoodeducationsystemmust

confronttherealitiesoftheworldweliveinandeducateinawaythataddresses

them,ratherthanpretendthatthesechallengesdon’texist.

Andthentherearethosestrangecollegecourseson,say,“transgendered

rolesinEast-Africanpoetry”thatinfuriateconservativecriticsofhigher

education.Theyarerighttobedismayedatthebizarreandnarrowcontent,butit

comesaboutforreasonsthatareoftennonpolitical.Someofthemost

controversialfeaturesofmodernliberaleducationhavecomeintobeingnotout

ofintellectualconvictionbutfrombureaucraticconvenience.AsAmerica’sbest

collegesbecametheworld’sbestuniversities,theimperativesofthelatterbegan

todominatetheformer.Researchhastrumpedteachinginmostlargeuniversities

—noonegetstenureforteaching.Butasimportant,thecurriculumhasalsobeen

warpedtosatisfyresearch.Professorsfindthatitisdrearyandlaboriousfor

themtoteachbasiccoursesthatmightbeinterestingandusefulforstudents.Itis

mucheasiertoofferseminarsontheircurrentresearchinterests,nomatterhow

small,obscure,orirrelevantthetopicistoundergraduates.Asknowledge

becomesmorespecialized,thecoursesofferedtostudentsbecomemorearcane.

Itisthisimpulsethatproducestheseeminglyabsurdcoursesonefindsinsome

collegestoday,asmuchasthesubversivedesiresofaleft-wingprofessoriat.

Anotherdevelopment,againunrelatedtoanyintellectualtheoryaboutliberal

education,hasbeentheabandonmentofrigor,largelyinthehumanities.Grades

haverisensteadilyinalmostallAmericancollegesinrecentdecades.Today,43

percentofallgradesawardedareintheArange—upfrom15percentin1960.

Thisisanoutgrowthofacomplexsetoffactors,oneofwhichisindeedthe

risingqualityofstudents.Butothersarebureaucraticandphilosophical,suchas

the1960sassaultonhierarchy.Icanattestfrompersonalexperiencethathanding

outhighmarkscanbeconvenientforfacultyinterests.WhenIwasateaching

assistantatHarvard,IquicklyrealizedthatgivingBminusesorbelowmeant

thatthestudentswouldcometocomplainatlength;askyoutoreconsider,

maybegivethemanotherchancetodotheworkover;andevenraisetheissue

withtheiradvisororadean.Itmeantlotsofworkforme.Themucheasier

strategywastogiveeveryoneaBplusoranAminus,reservingthestraightA

forworksofgenuinedistinction.(Itriedtoresistbutwascertainlyguiltyof

takingtheeasywayoutmorethanonce.)Icannotsayiftheincentivesremain

thesame,butInoticethattheportionofallgradesthatareAorAminusat

Harvardhasrisenfromathird(in1986)toahalf(in2006).Andthemost

commonlyawardedgradeatHarvardtodayisastraightA—notevenanA

minus.

Thegreatestshiftinliberaleducationoverthepastcenturyhasbeenthe

downgradingofsubjectsinscienceandtechnology.Historically,beginningwith

GreekandRomandevelopmentsineducation,scientificexplorationwaspursued

throughthelensof“naturalphilosophy.”IntheMiddleAges,thesubjectwas

seenaspartofanefforttoexplainGod’screationandman’srolewithinit.But

duringtheageofscientificrevolutions,andcomingtoaclimaxinthenineteenth

centurywithCharlesDarwin’stheoryofevolution,thestudyofscience

increasinglyconflictedwithreligion.Thisledtothedisciplinelosingitscentral

positioninliberaleducation,whichwasstillthengroundedinapiousoutlook

thatsoughttounderstandnotonlythemysteryoflifebutalsoitspurpose.As

AnthonyKronmanwrites,ariseinscientificresearchmeant“amaterialuniverse

whosestructurecouldnowbedescribedwithastoundingprecisionbutwhich

wasitselfdevoidofmeaningandpurpose.Asaresult,thephysicalsciences

ceasedtobeconcernedwith,ortohavemuchtocontributeto,thesearchforan

answertothequestionofthemeaningoflife.”Sciencewasrelegatedto

scientists—ahugelosstosocietyasawhole.

Bythemiddleofthetwentiethcentury,followingthequantumrevolutionin

physics,laypeoplefounditevenmoredifficulttounderstandscienceand

integrateitintootherfieldsofknowledge.In1959,C.P.Snow,anEnglish

physicistandnovelist,wroteafamousessay,“TheTwoCultures,”inwhichhe

warnedthatthepolarizationofknowledgeintotwocampswasproducing

“mutualincomprehension...hostilityanddislike.”Heexplains:

AgoodmanytimesIhavebeenpresentatgatheringsofpeoplewho,bythestandardsofthe

traditionalculture,arethoughthighlyeducatedandwhohavewithconsiderablegustobeen

expressingtheirincredulityattheilliteracyofscientists.OnceortwiceIhavebeenprovokedand

haveaskedthecompanyhowmanyofthemcoulddescribetheSecondLawofThermodynamics.

Theresponsewascold:itwasalsonegative.YetIwasaskingsomethingwhichisaboutthe

scientificequivalentof:HaveyoureadaworkofShakespeare’s?InowbelievethatifIhadaskedan

evensimplerquestion—suchas,Whatdoyoumeanbymass,oracceleration,whichisthescientific

equivalentofsaying,Canyouread?—notmorethanoneintenofthehighlyeducatedwouldhave

feltthatIwasspeakingthesamelanguage.Sothegreatedificeofmodernphysicsgoesup,andthe

majorityofthecleverestpeopleinthewesternworldhaveaboutasmuchinsightintoitastheir

neolithicancestorswouldhavehad.

In2003,LawrenceSummers,thenpresidentofHarvard,echoedSnow’s

concernsandadvocatedareturntoscientificliteracyforallattheundergraduate

level.FormerPrincetonpresidentShirleyTilghman,herselfascientist,arguedin

2010thatdiscussionsofpublicpolicyareimpoverishedbecauseofthebasic

ignoranceofsciencethatpervadesAmericansocietytoday.Nonscientistsneedto

understandscience,shecontends,andscientistsarebestoffwithastrong

backgroundinothersubjectsaswell.Andyetlittlehaschangedonthisfrontin

recentyears.

Themostinterestingandambitiousefforttoreformliberaleducationforthe

twenty-firstcenturyisnottakingplaceinAmerica.Infact,itistakingplace

aboutasfarawayfromtheUnitedStatesasonecanpossiblyget—Singapore.In

2011,YaleUniversityjoinedwiththeNationalUniversityofSingaporeto

establishanewliberalartsschoolinAsiacalledYale-NUSCollege,andinthe

fallof2013,itwelcomeditsfirstclassof157studentsfromtwenty-six

countries.WhenIwasatrusteeatYale,Ienthusiasticallysupportedthisventure.

Theproject—thoughnotwithoutrisks—hasthepotentialtocreateabeachhead

forbroad-basedliberaleducationinapartoftheworldthat,whilerisingtothe

centerstageglobally,remainsrelentlesslyfocusedonskills-basedinstruction.

Scholarsfrombothuniversitieshaveusedtheventureasanopportunityto

reexaminetheconceptofliberaleducationinanincreasinglyconnectedand

globalizedworld.ThecurriculumofYale-NUSreflectsthatthinking,insome

partsdrawingonthebestoftheoldtradition,insomepartsrefiningit,andin

somepartscreatingawholenewsetofideasaboutteachingtheyoung.InApril

2013,acommitteeofthisnewenterprisesetforththeideasthatwilldefinethe

college.Itisanextraordinarydocumentand,ifimplementedwell,couldserveas

amodelfortheliberalartscollegeofthefuture.

TheYale-NUSreportisradicalandinnovative.First,theschoolcallsitselfa

collegeofliberalartsandsciences,torestoresciencetoitsfundamentalplacein

anundergraduate’seducation.Itabolishesdepartments,seeingthemassilosthat

inhibitcross-fertilization,interdisciplinaryworks,andsynergy.Itembracesa

corecurriculum,whichtakesupmostofthefirsttwoyearsofstudybutisvery

differentfromtheColumbia-Chicagomodel.ThefocusoftheYale-NUScoreis

toexposestudentstoavarietyofmodesofthinking.Inonemoduletheyareto

learnhowexperimentalscientistsconductresearch;inanother,howstatistics

informssocialscienceandpublicpolicy.Thereisastrongemphasisthroughout

onexposingstudentstoscientificmethodsratherthanscientificfactssothat—

whatevertheirultimatemajor—theyareawareofthewayinwhichscience

works.

TheYale-NUScoredoesincludecoursesonthegreatbooks,butitdoesnot

treatthemassimplyacanontobecheckedoffonaculturalliteracylist.The

booksselectedareviewedasinterestingexamplesofagenre,chosennot

becausetheyarepartofa“required”bodyofknowledgebutbecausethey

benefitfromcarefulanalysis.Theemphasisagainisonthemethodofinquiry.

Studentslearnhowtoread,unpack,andthenwriteaboutagreatworkof

literatureorphilosophyorart.Thecurriculumrequiresstudentstotakeon

projectsoutsidetheclassroom,inthebeliefthata“work”componentteaches

valuablelessonsthatlearningfromabookcannot.Thisparthasapowerful

practicalappeal.IonceaskedJeffBewkes,theCEOofTimeWarner,whatskill

wasmostusefulinbusinessthatwasn’ttaughtincollegeorgraduateschools.He

immediatelyreplied,“Teamwork.Youhavetoknowhowtoworkwithpeople

andgetotherstowanttoworkwithyou.It’sprobablythecrucialskill,andyet

educationismostlyaboutsoloperformances.”

ThegreatestinnovationintheYale-NUScurriculumcomesdirectlyfromthe

natureoftheassociationbetweenthetwouniversitiesandtheirhomecultures.

StudentsstudynotonlyPlatoandAristotlebutalso,inthesamecourse,

ConfuciusandtheBuddha—andaskwhytheirsystemsofethicsmightbe

similarordifferent.TheystudytheOdysseyandtheRamayana.Theyexamine

the“primitivisms”ofPaulGauguinandPabloPicassowhilealsolookingatthe

woodcarvingsfromtheSouthSeaIslandsandtheukiyo-etraditionofJapanese

woodblockprintsthatinfluencedWesternartists.And,ofcourse,astheystudy

modernhistory,politics,andeconomics,theywillnaturallyfindthemselves

takingamorecomparativeapproachtothetopicsthananycollegeintheUnited

StatesorAsiawouldlikelydobyitself.Multiculturalismineducationisusually

aclichéthatindicateslittleofsubstance,orinvolvesWesterncritiquesofthe

West(likethoseofthewriterFrantzFanonorthehistorianHowardZinn).The

Yale-NUScurriculumisbuilttoprovideagenuinemulticulturaleducationina

collegedesignedfortheemergingmulticulturalworld.Instudyingother

societies,studentslearnmuchmoreabouttheirown.Itisonlybyhavingsome

pointofcomparisonthatonecanunderstandthedistinctivequalitiesofWestern

orChineseorIndianculture.

Yale-NUSisinitsveryearlydays.Itmaynotbeabletoimplementallits

ideas.Itdoesnotsolvealltheproblemsofaliberaleducation.Thetensions

betweenfreedomofinquiryandthestill-closedpoliticalsysteminSingapore

mightunderminetheproject.Buttheeducatorsinvolvedhaveconceivedofthe

college’smissionandmandatebrilliantly,andhavepointedthewaytoarevived,

rigorousliberaleducationthatrecoverstheimportanceofscience,places

teachingatitsheart,combinesacorewithopenexploration,andreflectsthe

directiontheworldisheaded,inwhichknowledgeofnewcountriesandcultures

isanessentialcomponentofanyeducation.Yale-NUSshouldbecomeamodel

studiedaroundtheworld.

Butwhatifaliberaleducationdonewellstilldoesn’tgetyouajob?In1852,

CardinalNewmanwrotethatastudentofliberaleducation“apprehendsthegreat

outlinesofknowledge”foritsownsakeratherthantoacquireskillstopracticea

tradeordoajob.Eventhen,henoted,therewereskepticswhoraisedquestions

ofpracticality.Aswehaveseen,suchquestionshavesurroundedtheideaof

liberaleducationsincethedaysofIsocrates,andtheypersisttoday.Newman

tellsusthathiscriticswouldaskhim,“Towhatthendoesitlead?wheredoesit

end?whatdoesitdo?Howdoesitprofit?”OrasaformerpresidentofYale,the

lateA.BartlettGiamatti,putitinoneofhisbeautifullectures,“Whatisthe

earthlyuseofallthiskindofeducation?”

So,whatistheearthlyuseofaliberaleducation?

*BruceKimball,OratorsandPhilosophers:AHistoryoftheIdeaofLiberalEducation(NewYork:

TeachersCollegePress,1986),isespeciallyenlighteningonancientandearlyeducation,andIdrawonit,

amongothersources,fortheparagraphsdealingwiththatperiod.

†IdrawonDelbanco’sexcellentbookCollege:WhatItWas,Is,andShouldBe(Princeton,NJ:Princeton

UniversityPress,2012),amongothers,fortheearlyyearsofAmericanhighereducation.

LearningtoThink

WHENYOUHEARsomeoneextolthebenefitsofaliberaleducation,youwill

probablyhearhimorhersaythat“itteachesyouhowtothink.”I’msurethat’s

true.Butforme,thecentralvirtueofaliberaleducationisthatitteachesyou

howtowrite,andwritingmakesyouthink.Whateveryoudoinlife,theability

towriteclearly,cleanly,andreasonablyquicklywillprovetobeaninvaluable

skill.

Inmyfreshmanyearofcollege,ItookanEnglishcompositioncourse.My

teacher,anelderlyEnglishmanwithasharpwitandanevensharperredpencil,

wasatoughgrader.Hewouldreturnmyessayswithdozensofcommentswritten

inthemargins,eachonehighlightingsomethingthatwasvagueorconfusingor

poorlyarticulated.IrealizedthatincomingfromIndia,Iwasprettygoodat

takingtestsandregurgitatingthingsIhadmemorized;Iwasnotsogoodat

expressingmyownideas.BythetimeIgottocollege,Ihadtakenmany,many

examsbutwrittenalmostnopapers.Thatwasnotunusualevenatagoodhigh

schoolinAsiainthe1970s,andit’sstilltrueinmanyplacestheretoday.

Overthecourseofthatsemester,Ifoundmyselfstartingtomakethe

connectionbetweenmythoughtsandwords.Itwashard.Beingforcedtowrite

clearlymeans,first,youhavetothinkclearly.Ibegantorecognizethatthetwo

processesareinextricablyintertwined.Inwhatisprobablyanapocryphalstory,

whenthecolumnistWalterLippmannwasonceaskedhisviewsonaparticular

topic,heissaidtohavereplied,“Idon’tknowwhatIthinkonthatone.Ihaven’t

writtenaboutityet.”

Inmodernphilosophy,thereisagreatdebateastowhichcomesfirst—

thoughtorlanguage.Dowethinkabstractlyandthenputthoseideasintowords,

ordowethinkinwordsthatthencreateascaffoldingofthought?Icanspeak

onlyfrommyownexperience.WhenIbegintowrite,Irealizethatmy

“thoughts”areusuallyajumbleofhalf-formedideasstrungtogether,with

gapingholesbetweenthem.Itistheactofwritingthatforcesmetosortthem

out.Writingthefirstdraftofacolumnoranessayisanexpressionofself-

knowledge—learningjustwhatIthinkaboutatopic,whetherthereisalogical

sequencetomyideas,andwhethertheconclusionflowsfromthefactsathand.

Nomatterwhoyouare—apolitician,abusinessperson,alawyer,ahistorian,or

anovelist—writingforcesyoutomakechoicesandbringsclarityandorderto

yourideas.

Ifyouthinkthishasnoearthlyuse,askJeffBezos,thefounderofAmazon.

Bezosinsiststhathisseniorexecutiveswritememos,oftenaslongassixprinted

pages,andbeginssenior-managementmeetingswithaperiodofquiettime,

sometimesaslongasthirtyminutes,whileeveryonereadsthe“narratives”to

themselvesandmakesnotesonthem.Ifproposinganewproductorstrategy,the

memomusttaketheformofapressrelease,usingsimple,jargon-freelanguage

sothatalaypersoncanunderstandit.InaninterviewwithFortune’sAdam

Lashinsky,Bezossaid,“Fullsentencesarehardertowrite.Theyhaveverbs.The

paragraphshavetopicsentences.Thereisnowaytowriteasix-page,narratively

structuredmemoandnothaveclearthinking.”

NormanAugustine,reflectingonhisyearsastheCEOofLockheedMartin,

recalledthat“thefirmIledattheendofmyformalbusinesscareeremployed

someonehundredeightythousandpeople,mostlycollegegraduates,ofwhom

overeightythousandwereengineersorscientists.Ihaveconcludedthatoneof

thestrongercorrelationswithadvancementthroughthemanagementrankswas

theabilityofanindividualtoexpressclearlyhisorherthoughtsinwriting.”

Thesecondgreatadvantageofaliberaleducationisthatitteachesyouhow

tospeak.TheYale-NUSreportstatesthatthecollegewantstomake“articulate

communication”centraltoitsintellectualexperience.Thatinvolveswriting,of

course,butalsotheabilitytogivecompellingverbalexplanationsof,say,

scientificexperimentsortodeliverpresentationsbeforesmallandlargegroups.

Atthedeepestlevel,articulatecommunicationhelpsyoutospeakyourmind.

Thisdoesn’tmeanspoutinganythingandeverythingyou’rethinkingatany

givenmoment.Itmeanslearningtounderstandyourownmind,tofilterout

under-developedideas,andthentoexpresstotheoutsideworldyourthoughts,

arrangedinsomelogicalorder.

AnotherdifferencethatstruckmebetweenschoolinIndiaandcollegeinthe

UnitedStateswasthattalkingwasanimportantcomponentofmygrade.My

professorsweregoingtojudgemeonmyabilitytothinkthroughthesubject

matterandtopresentmyanalysisandconclusions—outloud.Theseminar,a

formofteachingandlearningattheheartofliberaleducation,helpsyoutoread,

analyze,anddissect.Aboveall,ithelpsyoutoexpressyourself.Andthis

emphasison“articulatecommunication”isreinforcedinthemany

extracurricularactivitiesthatsurroundeveryliberalartscollege—theater,debate,

politicalunions,studentgovernment,protestgroups.Inordertobesuccessfulin

life,youoftenhavetogainyourpeers’attentionandconvincethemofyour

cause,sometimesinafive-minuteelevatorpitch.

Thestudyandpracticeofspeechactuallyfiguredfarmoreprominentlyinthe

earlycenturiesofliberaleducation.Rhetoricwasamongthemostimportant

subjectstaught—oftenthemostimportant.Itwasintimatelyconnectednotonly

withphilosophybutalsowithgovernanceandaction.Inthecenturiesbefore

print,oralcommunicationwasatthecenterofpublicandprofessionallife.The

eighteenth-andnineteenth-centurycollegecurriculainBritainandtheUnited

Statesmaintainedthatemphasisonoratory.

Inthetwentiethcentury,asresearchbecamethemajorfocusoflarge

universities,andtheprintedtextbecamethedominantmethodofmass

communication,theemphasisonspeechfaded,especiallyintheUnitedStates.

InGreatBritain,publicspeakingremainsprominentinatraditionofpoetry

recitationandelocution,debateanddeclamation.AtthecenterofBritain’s

politicallifestandstheHouseofCommons,avenueinwhichtheabilitytothrust

andparryverballygainsapoliticiannoticebyhisorherpeers.That’swhyso

manyBritonssoundintelligent,lucid,andwitty—it’snotjusttheaccent.The

riseoftelevisionanddigitalvideohavemadeverbalfluencyuseful,sometimes

crucial.Whetherforpublicorprivatecommunication,theabilitytoarticulate

yourthoughtsclearlywillprovetobeatremendousstrength.Nomatterhow

strongyouridea,youhavetobeabletoconvinceotherstogetbehindit.

Arelatedmethodoflearningthroughtheageshasbeensomethingthatis

oftenthoughtofaspurepleasure—conversation.“Conversation,”aformer

presidentofYale,A.WhitneyGriswold,wrote,“istheoldestformofinstruction

ofthehumanrace,”definingitas“thegreatcreativeartwherebymantranslates

feelingintoreasonandshareswithhisfellowmanthoseinnermostthoughtsand

idealsofwhichcivilizationismade.”ThescientistandphilosopherAlfredNorth

Whiteheadonceconfessedthat“outsideofthebook-knowledgewhichis

necessarytoourprofessionaltraining,IthinkIgotmostofmydevelopment

fromthegoodconversationtowhichIhavealwayshadthelucktohaveaccess.”

Thisisprobablytheinsightbehindthe“open-planoffice”thatencourages

meetings,chats,andconversationthroughouttheworkday.Formypart,Ihave

foundthatinterviewingpeople,exchangingviewswithpeersandfriends,and

arguingateditorialmeetingshavebeencrucialtolearning.

Thatbringsmetothethirdgreatstrengthofaliberaleducation:itteaches

youhowtolearn.InowrealizethatwhatIgainedfromcollegeandgraduate

school,farmorelastingthananyspecificsetoffactsorpieceofknowledge,has

beentheunderstandingofhowtoacquireknowledgeonmyown.Ilearnedhow

toreadanessayclosely,searchfornewsources,finddatatoproveordisprovea

hypothesis,anddetectanauthor’sprejudices.Ilearnedhowtoreadabookfast

andstillgetitsessence.Ilearnedtoaskquestions,presentanopposingview,

takenotes,and,nowadays,watchspeeches,lectures,andinterviewsasthey

streamacrossmycomputer.Andmostofall,Ilearnedthatlearningwasa

pleasure—agreatadventureofexploration.

Whateverjobyoutake,thespecificsubjectsyoustudiedincollegewill

probablyprovesomewhatirrelevanttotheday-to-dayworkyouwilldosoon

afteryougraduate.Andeveniftheyarerelevant,thatwillchange.Peoplewho

learnedtowritecodeforcomputersjusttenyearsagonowconfrontanewworld

ofappsandmobiledevices.Whatremainconstantaretheskillsyouacquireand

themethodsyoulearntoapproachproblems.Givenhowquicklyindustriesand

professionsareevolvingthesedays,youwillneedtoapplytheseskillstonew

challengesallthetime.Learningandre-learning,toolingandretoolingareatthe

heartofthemoderneconomy.DrewFaust,presidentofHarvardUniversity,has

pointedoutthataliberaleducationshouldgivepeopletheskills“thatwillhelp

themgetreadyfortheirsixthjob,nottheirfirstjob.”

Youmightalsoneedtoexperimentwithvarietiesofintelligence,notjust

one.HowardGardner,adevelopmentalpsychologistandexpertoneducation,

haspositedthatthereareatleasteightkindsofintelligence:linguistic,logical-

mathematical,spatial,musical,bodily-kinesthetic,naturalistic,intrapersonal,and

interpersonal.Tobeproperlypreparedfortoday’sworld,studentsmust

experienceseveralmethodsoflearningconducivetothesevariousintelligences.

America’slooseandopensystemofhighereducationallowsforthiskindof

experimentation.ThisiswhatpromptedGardnertowrite,“Thereisajokeinmy

tradethatoneshouldgotoinfantschoolinFrance,preschoolinItaly,primary

schoolinJapan,secondaryschoolinGermany,andcollegeoruniversityinthe

UnitedStates.”

ThomasCech—NobelPrize–winningchemistandgraduateofGrinnell

College,aclassicliberalartsschool—makesasportsanalogytoillustratea

similarinsight.Justasathletesdoexercisesunrelatedtotheirownsport,so

studentsshouldstudyfieldsoutsidetheiracademicareaoffocus.“Cross-training

mayexercisekeymusclegroupsmoreeffectivelythanspendingthesame

amountoftimeworkingoutinthesportofinterest,”Cechwrites.“Analogously,

aliberalartseducationencouragesscientiststoimprovetheir‘competitiveedge’

bycross-traininginthehumanitiesorarts.Suchacademiccross-training

developsastudent’sabilitytocollectandorganizefactsandopinions,toanalyze

themandweightheirvalue,andtoarticulateanargument,anditmaydevelop

theseskillsmoreeffectivelythanwritingyetanotherlabreport.”

Gardnerarguesthatinthefuture,studentswillfocusevenmoreonmodesof

thinking.Afterall,withfactsbeingjustaGooglesearchaway,whywastebrain

cellsmemorizingthem?Henotesthatthebestthinkingoftenhappenswhen

ideas,fields,anddisciplinescollide,inasettingwhereculturesrubupagainst

oneanother.Inthesamevein,herejectsagreat-booksapproachtolearning—

moresothanIwould.Thepointofeducation,inhisview,isnottostock

students’mindswithantiquefurniture,buttohelpthemgaintheintellectual

skillstheyrequiretobuildtheirownsetofchairsandtables.Hewouldfavora

curriculumthatexposesstudentstodifferentwaysofthinking—observational,

analytic,aesthetic,teamworkoriented,andsoon(whichsoundsalotlikethe

Yale-NUSprogram).Suchacurriculumisnowknowntoproduceresults.

Drawingonhisknowledgeofpsychologyandneuroscience,Gardnerassertsthat

“itbordersonmalpracticetodesigneducationthatisbackward-lookingandthat

ignoreswhatwenowunderstandabouthowthemindconstructsandreconstructs

knowledge.”

Technologyandengineeringinvolveextraordinaryexplorationsofideasand

thought,somethingthatisoftenlostbecauseoftheirreal-worldapplication.

Theyarescientificallyfascinating,whetherornottheywillmakeyourich.I

rememberbeingamazedbythefirstcomputersIsawinIndiainthe1970s,butI

didn’thaveanysensethattheywouldproducelucrativenewindustries.Inthose

days,thecomputerprogrammingIlearnedinvolvedusingpunchcardsand

masteringFORTRAN,alanguagelong-sincedead.Eveninthatcumbersome

format,themachine’sincrediblepowerwasevident.Itwasalsofuntolearn

somethingsonew.Computershavetransformedtheworldinwaysthatarenow

blindinglyobvious.Butwithallthemoneysurroundingthem,wecaneasily

forgettheintellectualpleasuretheycangive.Bigdata,artificialintelligence,and

mobilecomputingallmightproducegreatnewcompanies,buttheyalsotakeus

intoareasofknowledgewherewehaveneverbeenbefore.Andwhetherornot

thatmakessomeoneabillionaire,itisathrillingintellectualjourneythatasks

profoundquestionsaboutthenatureofthemind—areturninsomewaystothe

ideaofscienceasabranchofphilosophy.

Eventechnicalskillsbythemselvesareawonderfulmanifestationofhuman

ingenuity.Buttheydon’thavetobepraisedattheexpenseofhumanities,asthey

oftenaretoday.Engineeringisnotbetterthanarthistory.Societyneedsboth,

oftenincombination.WhenunveilinganeweditionoftheiPad,SteveJobs

explainedthat“itisinApple’sDNAthattechnologyaloneisnotenough.It’s

technologymarriedwithliberalarts,marriedwiththehumanities,thatyieldsus

theresultthatmakesourheartssing.”

Thatmarriageisnotsimplyamatterofaddingdesigntotechnology.

ConsiderthecaseofFacebook.MarkZuckerbergwasaclassicliberalarts

studentwhoalsohappenedtobepassionatelyinterestedincomputers.He

studiedancientGreekintensivelyinhighschoolandwasapsychologymajor

whenheattendedcollege.ThecrucialinsightsthatmadeFacebookthegiantitis

todayhaveasmuchtodowithpsychologyastheydotechnology.Ininterviews

andtalks,ZuckerberghasoftenpointedoutthatbeforeFacebookwascreated,

mostpeopleshieldedtheiridentitiesontheInternet.TheInternetwasalandof

anonymity.Facebook’sinsightwasthatyoucouldcreateacultureofreal

identities,wherepeoplewouldvoluntarilyexposethemselvestotheirfriends,

andthiswouldbecomeatransformativeplatform.Ofcourse,Zuckerberg

understandscomputersdeeplyandnowusesgreatcoderstoputhisideasinto

practice,buthisunderstandingofhumanpsychologywaskeytohissuccess.In

hisownwords,Facebookis“asmuchpsychologyandsociologyasitis

technology.”

Technologyandliberaleducationgohandinhandinbusinesstoday.Twenty

yearsago,techcompaniesmighthavesurvivedsimplyasindustrialproduct

manufacturers.Nowtheyhavetobeatthecuttingedgeofdesign,marketing,

andsocialnetworking.Manyothercompaniesalsodirectmuchoftheirattention

towardthesefields,sincemanufacturingisincreasinglycommoditized.Youcan

makeasneakerequallywellinmanypartsoftheworld.Butyoucan’tsellitfor

threehundreddollarsunlessyouhavebuiltastoryaroundit.Thesameistruefor

cars,clothes,andcoffee.Thevalueaddedisinthebrand—howitisimagined,

presented,sold,andsustained.BruceNussbaum,anexpertoninnovation,wrote

ina2005essayinBusinessweekthatthe“KnowledgeEconomyasweknowitis

beingeclipsedbysomethingnew—callittheCreativityEconomy....Whatwas

oncecentraltocorporations—price,quality,andmuchoftheleft-brain,digitized

analyticalworkassociatedwithknowledge—isfastbeingshippedofftolower-

paid,highlytrainedChineseandIndians,aswellasHungarians,Czechs,and

Russians.Increasingly,thenewcorecompetenceiscreativity—theright-brain

stuffthatsmartcompaniesarenowharnessingtogeneratetop-linegrowth....It

isn’tjustaboutmathandscienceanymore.It’saboutcreativity,imagination,and,

aboveall,innovation.”

DavidAutor,theMITeconomistwhohasmostcarefullystudiedtheimpact

oftechnologyandglobalizationonjobs,writesthat“humantasksthathave

provedmostamenabletocomputerizationarethosethatfollowexplicit,

codifiableprocedures—suchasmultiplication—wherecomputersnowvastly

exceedhumanlaborinspeed,quality,accuracy,andcostefficiency.Tasksthat

haveprovedmostvexingtoautomatearethosethatdemandflexibility,

judgment,andcommonsense—skillsthatweunderstandonlytacitly—for

example,developingahypothesisororganizingacloset.Inthesetasks,

computersareoftenlesssophisticatedthanpreschoolagechildren.”Thisdoesn’t

inanywaydetractfromtheneedfortrainingintechnology,butitdoessuggest

thatasweworkwithcomputers—whichisreallythefutureofallwork—the

mostvaluableskillswillbetheonesthatareuniquelyhuman,thatcomputers

cannotquitefigureout—yet.

Autordividesthejobmarketintothreeslices.AFastCompanyarticlenicely

summarizeshisresearch.“Atthebottomofthemarket,there’sagrowing

numberofservicesectorjobsthatrequirehands-oninteractioninunpredictable

environments—drivingabus,cookingfood,caringforchildrenortheelderly.

Theseareimpossibletooutsourceorreplacewithtechnology,”itnotes.The

middletierismadeupofjobsthatarewhitecollarbutarealsoroutine.They

involveinformationprocessing,formfiling,factfinding,dataentry,andsimple

dataanalysis.Thesearewhite-collarjobsininsurance,banking,andlaw,and

theyareincreasinglybeingdonebetterbymachines.“Atthetopofthemarket

arethejobsthateveryonewants.Andguesswhat?”thearticlesays,perhaps

moreoptimisticallythanAutorhimselfmight,“Thesearethejobsthatgraduates

oftheAmericaneducationalsystemarewellpreparedfor.[They]require

creativity,problemsolving,decisionmaking,persuasivearguing,and

managementskills.”VinodKhosla,aSiliconValleyventurecapitalist,argues

thatmachinelearningwillreplacemanyhumanjobs,butevenhebelievesthat

workinvolvingcomplexcreativity,emotionalintelligence,andvaluejudgments

willcontinuetobedonebyhumans.

AndthenthereisthemostinfluentialindustryintheUnitedStates—

entertainment,oneofthegreatestglobalgrowthsectors.A2012industryreport

titledTheSkyIsRisingpresenteddatashowingthatallbusinessrelatedto

entertainmenthadmaintainedanupwardtrajectory,throughrecessionsand

recoveries.Between1995and2009,thenumberoffeaturefilmsmade

worldwidemorethanquadrupled.Between2008and2011,thenumberof

Americansplayingvideogamesjumpedabouttwoandahalftimes.Evenin

bookpublishing,revenuesrose5.6percentbetweentherecessionyearsof2008

and2010.Musicandtelevisionaswell—everythinginthesectorisup.Thisis

anindustrythatemploysmillionsaroundtheworld,continuestogrow,and

enricheseconomiesandcultures.Andatitsheartarestories,images,words,and

songs.Oftentheseartisticelementsarefurtherembellishedbytechnology—asin

thefilmsTheLordoftheRingsandFrozen.Regardlessofhowthesefilmsare

made,itisclearthatmuchoftheproductionofentertainmentrequiresa

backgroundandexpertiseinoneofseveraloftheliberalarts.

Sothereisavaluetowritingandmusicanddesignandart.Butwhatabout

arthistory?WhatisthebestresponsetoPresidentObamaandsomanyothers

whoworryaboutthepurposeofanacademicdegreeinsubjectsasseemingly

obscureasarthistoryandanthropology?Tobefairtothepresident,hisemphasis

wasonthemanymillionsofAmericanswhoaremoreinclinedtoobtainsome

kindofskills-basedtrainingthanaliberaleducation.Perhapsthosepeoplewould

bebetterofflearningaspecifictechnicalskillratherthanenrollingina

preprofessional-soundingmajorlike“business.”Butforthosewhodofindthat

theirpassionisarthistoryoranthropology,andtakeitseriously,therearereal

rewardsintheoutsideworld.Boththosefieldsoftenrequiretheintensivestudy

ofseverallanguagesandcultures,experienceworkinginforeigncountries,an

eyeforaesthetics,andtheabilitytotranslatefromonemediumorcultureto

another.Mostoftheseskillscouldbeusefulinanynumberofprofessionsin

today’sglobalizedage.Theyforceyoutolookatpeopleandobjectsfroma

varietyofperspectives.AsHowardGardner’sresearchdemonstrates,thiskind

ofexposuretrainsvariouskindsofintelligence,makingyouamorecreativeand

awareperson.

ConsidertheexperienceofDr.IrwinBravermanoftheYaleMedicalSchool.

In1998,whenhewasteachingyoungmedicalstudentswhowereresidentsatan

affiliatedhospital,Dr.Bravermandiscoveredthattheirpowersofobservation

anddiagnosiswereweak.Hisnovelsolutionwastotakethemtoanartgallery.

HeteamedupwithLindaFriedlander,curatoroftheYaleCenterforBritishArt,

todesignavisualtutorialforonehundredstudents.Theyaskedthestudentsto

examinepaintings,forcingthemtounpackthemanylayersofdetailand

meaninginagoodworkofart.Bravermanfoundthatstudentsperformed

demonstrablybetteratdiagnosisaftertakingtheclass—somuchsothattwenty

othermedicalschoolshavefollowedhisexample.

Whilethismaysoundlikethequixoticideaofoneprofessor,therearedata

tosupportthevalueofroundedorlateralthinkingintheworkforce.In2013,the

AmericanAssociationofCollegesandUniversitiespublishedasurveyshowing

that74percentofemployerswouldrecommendagoodliberaleducationto

studentsasthebestwaytopreparefortoday’sglobaleconomy.Whenstudents

graduate,thosewithengineeringdegreesstartoutwithhighersalaries—asthey

should,giventhattheypossessatangibleskill-setthatcanbeinstantlyapplied

withinacompany.Butovertime,thewagegapbetweenengineersandother

professionalsnarrows,especiallyforliberalartsstudentswhogoontogeta

professionaldegree.Infact,onerecentstudyfoundthatstudentsfromasetof

liberalartscollegesweremorelikelythantheirpeersatotherinstitutionsof

highereducationtoobtaindoctoratesinsciences,presumablybecausethey

possessanacutecuriosityandsenseofacademicadventure.AsInoted,aliberal

educationmightencouragestudentinterestinscientificsubjectsfortheir

inherentintellectualvalue,ratherthantheirvalueinthemarketplace.Andthat

mighthaveitsownpayoffsovertimeintermsofbasicresearchandscientific

advancement.

NormanAugustine(theformerLockheedMartinCEO)stressedthe

importanceofbothscientificskillsandhumanisticthought:

Sowhatdoesbusinessneedfromoureducationalsystem?Oneansweristhatitneedsmore

employeeswhoexcelinscienceandengineering....Butthatisonlythebeginning;onecannotlive

byequationsalone.Theneedisincreasingforworkerswithgreaterforeign-languageskillsandan

expandedknowledgeofeconomics,history,andgeography.Andwhowantsatechnology-driven

economyifthosewhodriveitarenotgroundedinsuchfieldsasethics?...

Certainlywhenitcomestolife’smajordecisions,woulditnotbewellfortheleadersand

employeesofourgovernmentandournation’sfirmstohaveknowledgeofthethoughtsofthe

world’sgreatphilosophersandtheprovocativedilemmasfoundintheworksofgreatauthorsand

playwrights?Ibelievetheanswerisaresounding“yes.”

Similarly,EdgarBronfman,formerCEOofSeagramCompany,hasoffered

studentslookingtosucceedinbusinessonepieceofadvice:

Getaliberalartsdegree.Inmyexperience,aliberalartsdegreeisthemostimportantfactorin

formingindividualsintointerestingandinterestedpeoplewhocandeterminetheirownpaths

throughthefuture.

Forallofthedecisionsyoungbusinessleaderswillbeaskedtomakebasedonfactsandfigures,

needsandwants,numbersandspeculation,allofthosechoiceswillrequireonecommonskill:how

toevaluaterawinformation,beitfrompeopleoraspreadsheet,andmakereasonedandcritical

decisions.

YetasamplingoftheviewsofCEOsremainsjustanecdotalevidence.What

doesthebigpicturetellus,inthevastarenaofglobaleconomiccompetition?

Canliberaleducationstandupagainsttheinstructioninscienceandtechnology

thathasbeensofinelytunedbyAsiannations?

In2013,theOrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment

releasedtheresultsofthefirst-eversurveyoftheskillsadultsrequiretoworkin

themoderneconomy.Threeareaswereconsidered:literacy,numeracy,and

technology.TheUnitedStatesperformedterribly,scoringbelowtheOECD

averageinliteracyandtechnologicalproficiency,andthirdfromthebottomin

numeracy.Thetestwasdesignedtoassessproblem-solvingskills,notrote

memorization.Thetechnologytest,forinstance,askedpeopletosortcomputer

filesintofolders.Mosttroublingisthatinnumeracyandtechnological

proficiency,youngAmericans,agessixteentotwenty-four,rankedlast.

Thisisconsistentwiththeintellectualability(orlackthereof)that

Americansdemonstrateearlierintheirlives.Everythreeyearssince2000,the

OECDhasadministeredastandardizedtestinscience,mathematics,andreading

tofifteen-year-olds.Themostrecenteditionofthetest—calledtheProgramme

forInternationalStudentAssessment(PISA)—wasconductedin2012,andit

foundthatamongtheOECD’sthirty-fourmembers,theUnitedStatesranked

twenty-seventh,twentieth,andseventeenthinmath,science,andreading,

respectively.Ifrankingsacrossthethreesubjectsareaveraged,theUnitedStates

comesintwenty-first,trailingnationsliketheCzechRepublic,Poland,Slovenia,

andEstonia.

Butthereisapuzzle.TheUnitedStateshasneverperformedespeciallywell

oninternationaltests.In1964,theFirstInternationalMathematicsStudywas

administeredtothirteen-year-oldsintwelvecountries.Onaverage,thirteen-year-

oldsintheUnitedStatespostedasignificantlylowerscorethantheir

counterpartsinnineofthecountries.Onlyoneeducationsystemdidworse.In

the1970sand1980s,studiesonmathematicandscientificabilitycontinuedto

findAmericanstudentslaggingtheirinternationalpeers.Thoughnotalwaysat

thebottomoftherankings,theUnitedStateshasrarelyrisenfarabovethe

middleofthepack.Themostrecentassessmentintheseries,calledtheTrendsin

InternationalMathematicsandScienceStudy,wasconductedin2011,and

Americanstudentsdidmuchbetter.Offiftyeducationsystemstested,theUnited

Statesrankedeleventhandseventhinfourth-grademathandscience,

respectively.Offorty-twoeducationsystemsevaluated,theUnitedStatesranked

ninthandtenthineighth-grademathandscience.TheseTIMSStests,however,

arelessaboutconceptualproblemsolvingandmoreaboutrepeatingmaterial

thathasbeenstudied.

Overall,America’stestscoresaredisappointing,particularlygiventhe

UnitedStatesspendsmorepercapitathanalmostanyothercountryon

education.Buthowthendoesoneexplainthecountry’ssuccessoverthelastfive

decades?AndhowdoesoneunderstandwhystudentsinAsiancountriesthat

typicallytoptheinternationaltestchartsdon’tendupproducingtheworld’s

mostcreativescientists,entrepreneurs,inventors,composers,and

businesspeople?Thesehigh-scoringAsiancountriesdowelleconomically,of

course,buttheydon’tdoespeciallywellatinnovation—sofar.

Manyyearsago,IhadaconversationaboutallthiswithSingapore’sminister

ofeducationatthetime,TharmanShanmugaratnam.Singaporeistheright

countrytolookatbecauseitsitsamongthetop-performingnationson

internationaltests.Andyet,itisactivelyseekingtoboostinnovationand

entrepreneurshipamongthestudentsproducingthosetopscores.“Webothhave

meritocracies,”Shanmugaratnamsaid.“Yoursisatalentmeritocracy,oursisan

exammeritocracy.Therearesomepartsoftheintellectthatwearenotableto

testwell—likecreativity,curiosity,asenseofadventure,ambition.Mostofall,

Americahasacultureoflearningthatchallengesconventionalwisdom,evenifit

meanschallengingauthority.ThesearetheareaswhereSingaporemustlearn

fromAmerica.”

It’snotjustSingaporethatfeelsthisway,whichiswhyitsetuptheYale-

NUSliberalartsandsciencescollege.SouthKorea,whichconsistentlyproduces

toprankingsoninternationaltests,ismakingamajorinvestmentinliberal

education.SeoulNationalUniversityandYonseiUniversityhaveexpandedtheir

instructioninsubjectsassociatedwiththeliberalarts.Japanhasdonethesameat

theUniversityofTokyo,andin2004,WasedaUniversityopenedaSchoolof

InternationalLiberalStudies,thoughtheseeffortshaveyettobearfruitinany

substantialway.Indiahasalongtraditionofliberalartscollegesand

universities,manydatingtotheBritisheraandsometotheperiodafter

independence,likeJawaharlalNehruUniversity.Butnoneoftheseinstitutions

areasprestigiousasthecountry’sengineeringschools.Inaddition,allarerun

likethegovernmentbureaucraciesthattheyare.Lookingtoshakeuptheold

system,inrecentyears,severalprominentIndianbusinessmenhavesetupnew

higher-learninginstitutionsorientedtowardtheliberalarts,suchasAzimPremji

UniversityandMahindraUnitedWorldCollege.Inaddition,Ashokaand

NalandaUniversities,bothofwhichwelcomedtheirfirstclassofstudentsin

2014,hearkenbacktoIndia’sancientheritageofphilosophy,literature,science,

andethicsbutinamodernliberalartsandsciencesform.

Whenconsideringtheworld’smostinnovativecountriestoday,inadditionto

theUnitedStates,inEuropeoneoftenhearsaboutSweden,whichseemstohave

allthenewtechnologycompaniesoutsideSiliconValley.Andthenthereis

Israel,thesubjectofafascinatingbookdetailingitshigh-technologysector,

Start-upNationbyDanSenorandSaulSinger.Theevidenceconfirmsthis

anecdotalimpression.Israelactuallyranksfirstintheworldinventurecapital

investmentsasapercentageofGDP.TheUnitedStatesrankssecond,and

Swedensixth—aheadofGreatBritainandGermany.A2014Bloomberg

measureoftechnologydensity,orthenumberofhigh-techcompaniesasa

percentageofallpubliclylistedcompanies,providesasimilarstory.TheUnited

Statesranksfirst,Swedenranksfifth,andIsraeltenth.Researchand

developmentexpendituresasapercentageofGDPmoveIsraelintothetopspot,

withSwedeninfourth,andtheUnitedStatesinthetenthplace.

Whatisstrikingaboutallthreecountriesisthatnoneofthemdoparticularly

wellinthePISArankings.SwedenandIsraelperformedevenworsethanthe

UnitedStatesonthe2012assessment.Withtheirthreesubjectrankings

averaged,theycomeintwenty-eighthandtwenty-ninth,respectively,amongthe

OECD’sthirty-fourmembers.Whatdothesecountrieshaveincommon,other

thanbadtestscores,thatcouldexplaintheirreal-worldsuccess?Afewtraits

standout.Inallthreeplaces,theworkcultureisnon-hierarchicalandmerit

based.Alloperatelike“young”countries,withenergyanddynamism.Allthree

areopensocieties,happytoletintheworld’sideas,goods,andservices.And

finally,theyareallplaceswherepeopleareconfident—acharacteristicthatcan

actuallybemeasured.ThePISAtestsdon’tsimplyevaluatestudents’skills;they

alsoaskthemquestionstodeterminetheirlevelsofconfidence—or“self-

concept,”inthejargonused.Studentsareaskedhowgoodtheythinktheyareat,

say,mathematics.Despiterankingtwenty-seventhandthirtiethinthesubject,

respectively,AmericanandIsraelistudentscomeoutrightatthetopintheir

beliefintheirownabilities.Swedencomesinseventh,eventhoughitsactual

mathrankingwastwenty-eighth.

Irememberfirstreadingaboutthisdisparitybetweenachievementand

confidenceintheearly1990s.Atthetime,WilliamBennett,whohadservedas

secretaryofeducationunderPresidentRonaldReagan,describedsimilarresults,

quipping,“Thiscountryisalotbetteratteachingself-esteemthanitisat

teachingmath.”It’safunnyline,butonreflection,thereisactuallysomething

powerfulinthepluckyconfidenceofAmerican,Swedish,andIsraelistudents.It

allowsthemtochallengetheirelders,startcompanies,persistwhenothersthink

theyarewrong,andpickthemselvesupwhentheyfail.Thoughconfidence

overstatedrunstheriskofself-delusion,thetraitisanessentialingredientfor

entrepreneurship.IntheirbookTheTriplePackage,AmyChuaandJed

Rubenfeldarguethatthebest-performingminoritygroupspossessastrange

combinationofinsecurityandconfidence.WhenweconsiderAmerica’sendless

concernsaboutitsdecline,orIsrael’sfearforitsexistence,andthencouplethese

insecuritieswiththebravadoitspeopledisplay,perhapsweseethesame

phenomenonwritlarge.

Therelationshipbetweeneducationaltestscoresandeconomicperformance

isasubjectofgreatcontroversy(andhasbeencaughtupinthedebateabout

educationreform).Someexpertsseenocorrelationatall,whileotherspointto

datasuggestingtheopposite.Myownsenseisthatallthingsbeingequal,it

obviouslyhelpstohaveawell-trainedpopulation.America’spublicschool

systemneedsmanyofthereformsbeingproposedbybothRepublicansand

Democratstomakethismorelikely.SouthKorea,Taiwan,Singapore,andnow

China—withtheirhighratesofgrowthinrecentdecades—arelivingproofofa

connectionbetweenstrongtestscoresandeconomicsuccess.Butgrowthand

innovationaresupportedbymanyfactors,someofwhicharewhollyoutsidethe

realmoftestsandskills.

TheUnitedStateshasapoorlytrainedlaborforceingeneral,whichisa

disadvantage.Butitmakesupforitinseveralways.Thecountryhasan

extremelydynamicandflexibleeconomy,strongruleoflaw,agoodregulatory

structure,extraordinaryresearchuniversities,richventure-capitalfirms,anda

vibrantentrepreneurialculture.Alltheseingredientsmorethanmakeupfor

middlingtestscores.Japan,ontheotherhand,hasasuperblytrainedgeneral

population.Butitwouldscorepoorlyonmanybroadereconomicandcultural

indicators,especiallywithregardtoentrepreneurshipandthehierarchyof

society.GoodtestscoresarenotenoughtocreatethenextGoogle.

Americaalsobenefitsbybeingtheworld’smagnetfortheverybestand

brightest.Ittakesinmanyimmigrants,someofwhomarewelleducatedand

motivated.Itsbestperformerscreatenewcompanies,products,andeven

industries.AsSiliconValleydemonstrates,asmallnumberofpeoplecanhavea

bigimpactontheeconomy.ScholarsHeinerRindermannandJamesThompson

havefoundthattheperformanceofacountry’stop5percent,asmeasuredbyIQ,

iscloselycorrelatedwitheconomicgrowth.America’stop1percent

intellectually,whichworksouttooverthreemillionpeople,hasanoutsized

effectongrowth,accordingtoJonathanWaiofDukeUniversity.

Inasense,theUnitedStatesdoesanamazingjobgivenitsrawmaterial(a

poorlytrainedlaborforce),andJapanunderperformsdespiteitsamazingraw

material(ahighlyskilledpoolofworkers).SouthKoreaandSingapore,aswell

asSwitzerlandandsomenorthernEuropeancountries,dowellinboth

dimensionsandhavethegrowthtoproveit.Thegreatadvantageoftheirmodel

isthatitnotonlygeneratesstrongeconomicgrowthforthecountrybutalso

benefitsthemedianworker.Inotherwords,AmericahasmanyBillGatesesand

WarrenBuffettsandGooglesandFacebookstobringupitsaverages.Buttop

performersandahandfuloftechnologybehemothsdonottranslateintorising

incomesformostAmericans.Forthat,theEastAsian–northernEuropeanmodel

ofgoodeducationforalliscrucial.TheFrencheconomistThomasPikettyis

famousforarguingthatcapitalisminitsessenceproducesinequalityandfor

advocatinghighertaxestoamelioratetheproblem.ButinhistreatiseCapitalin

theTwenty-FirstCentury,Pikettyacknowledgesthatthebestapproachto

reducinginequalityinthelongruniswideningaccesstogoodeducation.“Over

alongperiodoftime,”hewrites,“themainforceinfavorofgreaterequalityhas

beenthediffusionofknowledgeandskills.”

EastAsia’seconomicsuccesshasledmanytowanttoemulateits

educationalsystem.ButaswithAmerica,Asiangrowthmightbeexplained

morefundamentallybyotherfactors—likehardwork.Again,resultsfromPISA

2012serveasevidence.Onaverage,studentsinShanghaiperformedbetterthan

alltheirinternationalpeers,andwerefoundtobetwoyearsaheadofeventhe

best-performingentryfromtheUnitedStates,Massachusetts.Whatisthesecret

formulathatexplainsShanghai’ssuperiorperformance?Doesitteachnewmath?

Oldmath?Chinesemath?Theanswermightbesimpler.U.S.Secretaryof

EducationArneDuncanhasestimatedthatChinesestudentsspend25to30

percentlongerayearinschoolthantheirAmericancounterparts.Bytheageof

fifteen,whenthetestistaken,studentshavebeenatschoolforabouttenyears.

So,withthenumberofschooldaysintheUnitedStatessetat180eachyear,a

fifteen-year-oldstudentinShanghaiwillhaveattendedschoolforwhatamounts

toroughlytwotothreemoreacademicyearsthanafifteen-year-oldin

Massachusetts.They’retwoyearsaheadinmathbecausethey’vetakenatleast

twomoreyearsofmath!It’snotChinesegenes,notabettersystem,notamagic

formula—justmorework.IfMalcolmGladwellisrightwhenhesaysthat

spendingtenthousandhoursinpracticehelpsyougainproficiencyinanarea,

EastAsiansaregoingtoreachthatgoalmuchfasterthanAmericans,nomatter

whatthemodeofinstructionis.

AmericansshouldbecarefulbeforetheytrytomimicAsianeducational

systems,whicharestillorientedaroundmemorizationandtesttaking.Iwent

throughthatkindofsystemandit’snotconducivetothinking,problemsolving,

orcreativity.ThefounderofChina’sInternetbehemothAlibaba,JackMa,gavea

speechrecentlyinwhichheaskedwhytheChinesewerenotasinnovativeas

AmericansandEuropeans.HisanswerwasthattheChineseeducationalsystem

teachesthebasicsverywell,butitdoesnotnourishaperson’scomplete

intelligenceandcreativity.Itneedstoallowpeopletorangefreely,experiment,

andenjoythemselveswhilelearning.“[Innovations]willonlycomeregularlyif

werethinkourculture...andoursports,”hesaid.“Manypainterslearnby

havingfun,manyworks[ofartandliterature]aretheproductsofhavingfun.So,

ourentrepreneursneedtolearntohavefun,too.”

TheAsiansystemdoesteachyoutoworkhard,toretainknowledgefortests,

andtoperformunderpressure—allofwhicharevaluableskills.Thatmaybethe

simpleproblemintheUnitedStatestoday—peopleareworkinglessatschool.

(Thisistrueofthecountryingeneral,notofitsbest-performinghighschools.

Thatsaid,evenamongthelatter,theacademicyearismuchshorterthanalmost

anywhereelseintheworld.)AndAmericanuniversitiestodayhavebecomeless

demandingalongmanydimensions.Gradeinflationisjustonemetric.A2010

researchpaperfoundthattheaveragenumberofhourscollegestudentsspend

studyingoutsidetheclassroomaweekdeclinedfromfortyin1961totwenty-

sevenin2003.

Animportantnewstudydrewonsurveydata,transcripts,andalearning

assessmenttoanswerthequestionofwhathigh-qualityAmericancollegesteach

theirstudents.Theanswerisstunning:notverymuch.RichardArumandJosipa

Roksa,theauthorsofAcademicallyAdrift,summarizetheirfindingssuccinctly:

Largenumbersoffour-yearcollegestudentsexperienceonlylimitedacademicdemands,investonly

modestlevelsofeffort,anddemonstratelimitedornogrowthonanobjectivemeasureofcritical

thinking,complexreasoning,andwrittencommunication.Fiftypercentofsophomoresinour

samplereportedthattheyhadnottakenasinglecoursethepriorsemesterthatrequiredmorethan

twentypagesofwritingoverthecourseofthesemester;one-thirddidnottakeasinglecoursethe

priorsemesterthatrequiredonaverageevenmorethan40pagesofreadingperweek.Studentsin

oursamplereportedstudyingonaverageonly12hoursperweekduringtheirsophomoreyear,one

thirdofwhichwasspentstudyingwithpeers.Evenmorealarming,37percentdedicatedfiveor

fewerhoursperweektostudyingalone.Thesepatternspersistedthroughthesenioryearandare

broadlyconsistentwithfindingsonacademicengagementfromotherstudies.Thesefindingsalso

shouldbeconsideredinthecontextofempiricalevidencedocumentinglargedeclinesoverrecent

decadesinthenumberofhoursfull-timecollegestudentsspendstudying.

Andthenthereistheindustryof“amateur”sports,whichconsumesa

massiveamountoftime,money,andattention.Manylargeuniversitieshave

becomemultimillion-dollarsportsfranchiseswithsmalleducationalinstitutions

attachedtothem.Someofthesesports,footballmostclearly,havetheeffectof

systematicallydamagingthebrainsofthestudents.YetasMalcolmGladwellhas

pointedout,institutionsthataresupposedlydedicatedtoenhancingthecerebral

capacityoftheirstudentscontinuetopromote,celebrate,andprofitfromthese

activities.Theideaofmeritandthedisciplineofacademicworkareundermined

asaresult.

Inmanycolleges,thesubjectsthatoftendefinetheliberalarts—thecore

humanities—haveinparticularbecomelessstructuredanddemanding.That

mightbewhyemployershavebecomemoresuspiciousofmajorslikeEnglish

andhistory.Thesocialsciences,bycontrast,haveincreasedinpopularityamong

studentsandincredibilitywithemployers.Theyremainsomewhatrigorous,

representingamidpointofsortsbetweenthehumanitiesandthesciences.Itis

therigoranddisciplineofasciencedegreethatmightimpressemployersthe

most,notthespecificsubjectmatter.Employersknowthataphysicsmajorisnot

likelytousemuchquantummechanicsinajobinvolvingtradingcommodities.

Mybrothergraduatedsummacumlaudefromcollegewithadegreeinmathand

thenwentintohighfinanceonWallStreet—supposedlyafieldinwhich

numbersmatter.Hefeltthathisundergraduatemajorgavehimnotechnical

advantageoverahumanitiesmajorwhocoulddobasicarithmetic.

Anexcessivelyloosestructure,diminishingworklevels,andlowstandards

—theseareflawsintheimplementationofaliberaleducation,notcharacteristics

ofit.Thesolutionisnotthatpeopleneedtomajorinmarketingincollege,but

thattheirliberaleducationshouldbemorestructuredanddemanding.Majors

shouldhavesomerequiredsequenceofbasiccourses,asineconomics.That

wouldbethebestpreparationforbetterjobsandstrongercareers.Manyfirms

lookfavorablyoncollegeathletesbecausetheyknowthatathleteshavethe

disciplineandhabitsthatgoalongwithregular,longtrainingandpractice

sessions.Ifyouwanttosucceedinlife,mostoftenyouneedtoputinthehours,

developgoodhabits,workwellwithothers,andgetlucky.Thatistruewhether

youstudyEnglish,physics,history,engineering,orbusiness.

Inthelate1980s,atthepeakofthebelief—orfear—thatJapanwasgoingto

becometheworld’slargesteconomy,itsmostinnovativecountry,andthemost

dynamicsociety,thejournalistJamesFallowsspentseveralyearsthereto

examinehowtheUnitedStatesmightconfrontcompetitionfromthe“rising

sun.”Hecametotheconclusionthatthebeststrategywasnottotrytobecome

liketheJapanese—thatis,nottocreateasocietygroundedinself-sacrifice,all-

powerfulgovernmentmandarins,andmassiveindustrialpolicy.Theanswerwas,

asthetitleofhisbookindicates,tobeMoreLikeUs.Thatmeantemphasizing

thedistinctivestrengthsoftheUnitedStates—itsopenness,innovation,

decentralization,laissez-faireattitude,andentrepreneurialculture—buttodoso

evenbetterthaninthepast.Thesamemightbetrueinthiscase.Thesolutionto

theproblemsofaliberaleducationismore—andbetter—liberaleducation.

TheNaturalAristocracy

BENJAMINFRANKLINISthemostimportantAmericanstatesmanneverto

havebeenpresident.Franklinplayedapivotalroleintherevolution,helpingto

drafttheDeclarationofIndependenceandthenservingasadelegatetothe

ConstitutionalConvention.HewasministertoFranceduringtheRevolutionary

War,securingwhatprovedtobecriticalFrenchloansinsupportoftheeffort.

ButFranklinloomslargeinAmericanhistorymoreforsymbolismthanfor

statecraft.HerepresentsanAmericanarchetype,perhapstheAmerican

archetype—theself-mademan.Oneoftenchildren,Franklinreceivedonlytwo

yearsofformaleducation,whichendedwhenhewastenyearsold.Sevenyears

later,helefthishomeinBostonforPhiladelphiatomakehisownwayinthe

world.Civicallyengaged,businessoriented,technologyobsessed,andsocially

skilled,Franklinwas“ourfoundingYuppie,”declarestheNewYorkTimes

columnistDavidBrooks.Franklin“wouldhavefeltrightathomeinthe

informationrevolution,”WalterIsaacsonwritesinhisbiographyofthe

statesman.“Wecaneasilyimaginehavingabeerwithhimafterwork,showing

himhowtousethelatestdigitaldevice,sharingthebusinessplanforanew

venture,anddiscussingthemostrecentpoliticalscandalsorpolicyideas.”The

essenceofFranklin’sappealisthathewasbrilliantbutpractical,interestedin

everything,butespeciallyinhowthingswork.

ThismightmakeBenFranklinsoundliketheperfectproponentofthe“drop

outofschoolandstartacompany”viewoflife.Totheextentthatanyschooling

helpedhim,itwasthetraininghereceivedduringhisapprenticeshipasaprinter.

ButitturnsoutthatFranklinhadasurprisinglybroadviewofthekindof

educationindividualsneedinordertoflourish.In1749,hepublisheda

pamphlet,ProposalsRelatingtotheEducationofYouthinPennsylvania,in

whichheoutlinedhisplansforanewacademyinthecolony.*Franklinbelieved

thateducationshouldhelppeoplenavigatetherealworldastheyenteredcareers

inpolitics,law,business,andotherfields.Atthesametime,hewantedyoung

mentogainexposureto“thegreatoutlinesofknowledge.”†Thepurposeoftheir

educationwouldbetoproduce“truemerit,”whichmeantjoiningabilitywiththe

inclinationtoserve“Mankind,one’sCountry,FriendsandFamily.”

Franklinwantedstudentstobepartofaresidentialcollege,evenspecifying

thatitwouldideallybesomewherewithagarden,anorchard,ameadow,anda

“fieldortwo.”Theyshouldlivetogether“frugally,”hewrote,andexercise

frequentlyto“renderactivetheirbodies.”ThesubjectsFranklinsuggestedthey

studywerebroadanddiverse:arithmetic,astronomy,geography,religion,

agriculture,andhistoryalongmanydimensions(oflaws,customs,nature,and

morality).Inparticular,hestressedtheimportanceofthestudyofEnglishover

LatinandGreek.Heurgedthatgreaterattentionbeplacedonwritingthanon

oratory,ashebelievedcommunicationinthemodernworldwasmoreeffective

throughthewrittenthanthespokenword.Onewonderswhathewouldhave

urgedoncehesawtheimpactoftelevisionandtheInternet.

TheschoolFranklinenvisionedinthemiddleoftheeighteenthcentury

largelyresembleswhatweunderstandaliberalartscollegetobetoday.Franklin

struggledtoputhisideasintopracticeatthetime.Hispamphletgotthewheels

turningforplansonaschoolinPhiladelphia,butwhentheacademyofficially

openedin1751,anoldguardofpiouseducatorsblockedhiseffortsatreform.

ThetrusteeshehadhelpedrecruitcontinuedtoprioritizethestudyofLatinover

English.Butinsubsequentdecades,theacademygrewintotheUniversityof

Pennsylvania,whichwentontobecomeoneoftheworld’smostdistinguished

liberalartsschools.

Franklinlikelywantedotherstoobtainamoregeneraleducationthanhe

himselfhadreceived,becauseherealizedhisownsuccesswasaresultofan

intenseandbroad-rangingcuriosity.Hewasfascinatedbyeverythinghesaw

aroundhim,fromdolphinstolunareclipses,andheexperimentedwithideas

fromelectricitytorefrigeration.Attwenty-one,Franklinfoundedasmallclubof

youngprofessionalscalledtheJunto,whichmetregularlytodiscusstopics

includingpolitics,science,andbusiness—almostlikeacollegeseminar.And

whilehewasalwaystryingtomakestuff,Franklinwasalsophilosophizingand

imaginingintheabstract.Thisishow,despitehislackofformaleducation,he

becameamajorscientificfigureofhistime,recognizedwithhonorarydegrees

fromOxford,Yale,andHarvardandawardedtheCopleyMedal(anearlier

versionoftheNobelPrizeinscience).IsaacsonquotesDudleyHerschbach,

Harvard’sNobelPrize–winningscientist,onFranklin’sscientific

accomplishments:“Hisworkonelectricitywasrecognizedasusheringina

scientificrevolutioncomparabletothosewroughtbyNewtonintheprevious

centuryorbyWatsonandCrickinours.”

IfFranklinsaweducationasthepathtoserviceformankind,hisgreat

contemporaryThomasJeffersonmadeamoreurgentconnection:aliberal

educationwouldensurethesurvivalofdemocracy.In1778,Jeffersonpresented

totheVirginialegislature“ABillfortheMoreGeneralDiffusionof

Knowledge,”inwhichhearguedthatallformsofgovernmentcoulddegenerate

intotyranny.Thebestwayofpreventingthis,hewrote,is“toilluminate,asfar

aspracticable,themindsofthepeopleatlarge.”Thestudyofhistorycouldserve

asanespeciallyeffectivebulwark,allowingthepeopletolearnhowtodefeat

tyrannyfrompastexamples.Jeffersonwouldreturnagainandagaintothe

importanceofeducationinademocracy.Inhiselegantanderuditebook,Beyond

theUniversity,MichaelRoth,presidentofWesleyanUniversity,explains,“This

wouldcreateavirtuouscircleoflearningandacitizenrythoughtfulenoughto

protectitselffromgovernmentaloverreaching.”Overthecourseofhispolitical

career,Jeffersonadvocatedanumberofmeasurestospreadeducationfarand

wide,includingpubliclyfundedschoolsandtheestablishmentofanational

universityinWashington.Afterservingassecretaryofstateandpresident,he

returnedtothiscentralobsessionbyfoundingtheUniversityofVirginia.

In1818,attheageofseventy-five,Jeffersongatheredtogetherfriendsand

associatestoestablishanewschoolinCharlottesville,Virginia.Itwasa

university“sothoroughlytheworkofhishandsthatitwastobecomeknown

simplyasMr.Jefferson’s,”JonMeachamwritesinhisbiographyofthethird

president.Itsobjectiveswereamixofthepracticalandphilosophical:totrain

statesmenandprofessionals,toexpoundontheprinciplesoffreedom,toteach

methodsofagriculture,andtoenlargethemindsandmoralsoftheyoung.His

proposedcurriculumwasmoreacademicthanFranklin’s,withagooddealof

mathandscience,aswellasmodernandancientlanguages,lawandhistory,

writingandgrammar.Jeffersonwasoneoftheearliestproponentsofelectives,

believingthatstudentsshouldpracticethesamefreedomatschoolthattheywere

allowedinademocracy.AndaswithFranklin’sschool,Jefferson’suniversity

wasnonsectarian.Infact,theUniversityofVirginiawasuniqueinthatits

physicallayoutwascenterednotonthechapelbutonthelibrary.

FranklinandJeffersonsharedtheviewthateducationwasawaytoensure

thatthenewrepublicwouldbeaplaceofmerit,wherebirth,bloodlines,and

hereditaryprivilegewouldnotcountformuch.Franklinwasaself-mademan,

andthroughouthislifeheextolledthevirtuesofthosewhohadrisenthrough

hardwork,talent,andskill.Hethoroughlyenjoyedthecompanyoftradesmen,

smallentrepreneurs,andshopkeepers,seeingintheirrisetheideaofequality

thatwasattheheartoftheideaofAmerica.Jefferson’sprosediffered.Heoften

wroteabouttheneedtocreatea“naturalaristocracy.”Whilethissoundslikea

planforaHouseofLords,Jeffersoninfactintendedtheopposite.His“natural

aristocracy”wasbasedstrictlyonmerit,toberefreshedconstantly,asopposedto

an“unnaturalaristocracy,”basedonbirth,wealth,andprivilege.Jefferson

believedthatallsocietiesinevitablyhaveelites—someone,inotherwords,has

tobeontop—butthatAmerica’seliteshouldcomefromfindingthebestand

brightestandeducatingthemwell.“Thebestgeniuseswillberakedfromthe

rubbishannually,”hewrote.TheUnitedStateswouldbeabletobenefitfrom

“thosetalentswhichnaturehadsownasliberallyamongthepoorastherich,but

whichperishwithoutuse,ifnotsoughtforandcultivated.”

ForJefferson,therewasonestepcrucialtocreatingagenuinenatural

aristocracy.Thepoorandrichhadtohaveequalaccesstoagoodeducation.

That’swhy,despitebeingsomethingofalibertarian,herepeatedlyproposedthat

thestatepayforuniversalprimaryeducationaswellasfundeducationatlater

stages.Hewasmetwithoppositionfrommanyquarters,mostlythosewaryof

biggovernmentorhighertaxes.Yetinterestingly,oneofhismostardent

supporterswasanoldfriendandpoliticalopponent,theconservativeJohn

Adams.“Thewholepeoplemusttakeuponthemselvestheeducationofthe

wholepeople,andmustbewillingtobeartheexpensesofit,”Adamswrote.

“Thereshouldnotbeadistrictofonemilesquare,withoutaschoolinit,not

foundedbyacharitableindividual,butmaintainedatthepublicexpenseofthe

peoplethemselves.”Jefferson’sfearwasthatwithoutsuchasystemofpublic

education,thecountrywouldendupbeingruledbyaprivilegedelitethatwould

recycleitselfthroughanetworkofprivateinstitutionsthatentrenchedtheir

advantages.

WhatwouldthesefoundingfathersmakeofAmericatoday?Whatwould

theymakeofacountrywhere,asThomasEdsallnotedintheNewYorkTimes,

74percentofstudentsattendingthemostcompetitivecollegeswereraisedin

familiesinthetopincomequartileandonly3percentcomefromfamiliesinthe

bottomquartile?Evenamongthebeststudents,familybackgroundmakesahuge

difference:High-scoringstudentsfromfamiliesinthetopincomequartileare

almosttwiceaslikelytogetcollegedegreesasstudentswithsimilarhighscores

fromfamiliesinthebottomquartile.Inaddition,criteriaforadmissionintothe

bestcollegesanduniversitiesthatseempurelymeritbased—likegrades,SAT

scores,andparticipationinextracurricularactivities—areactuallycorrelated

withfamilyincome.(Thecorrelationisnotasstrongfortestscoresasfor

outsideactivities.Youareonlyabletotakethatfascinatingunpaidsummer

internshipinSouthAfricaifyouhavethemeans.)Edsallquotestheeducation

expertAnthonyCarnevale:“Theeducationsystemisanincreasinglypowerful

mechanismfortheintergenerationalreproductionofprivilege.”

Halfacenturyago,theAmericanmiddleclasshadapowerfulpathtoahigh-

qualityeducation.InthedecadesfollowingtheSecondWorldWar,theGIBill

gaveawholenewgroupofAmericansaccesstothebestcolleges,andtuition

wasaffordableevenforthemiddleclass.Mostimportantly,publicuniversities

werebooming.In1960,aneighteen-year-oldlivinginCaliforniacouldgeta

superbeducationatanyoftheUniversityofCaliforniacampuses—includingthe

oneinBerkeley,whichhasmanydepartmentsthatrankinthetopfive

worldwide—atnocostwhatever.Zero.(Infact,inthosedaysaCalifornia

residentcouldgothroughoneoftheworld’sbestpublicschoolsbeforeattending

Berkeleyforcollegeandlaterforgraduateschool,andhisorherentireworld-

classeducation—fromkindergartentoaPhD—wouldhavecosthimorher

virtuallynothing.)Aslateasthe1970s,Berkeley’sannualtuitionfor

undergraduateswhowereCaliforniaresidentswasaround$700.Forthe2014–

15academicyear,tuition(notincludingroomandboard)costsCalifornia

residents$12,972.Nonresidentsarechargedanadditional$22,878.Berkeley’s

ownestimateofthetotalcostofattendanceforanonresidentstudentlivingon

campusisover$55,000ayear.Andunliketheverytopprivateschools,Berkeley

doesnothavetheendowmenttoprovideneed-blindfinancialaid.Asaresult,the

makeupofitsstudentbodytodayisprobablyquitedifferentfromwhatitwas

threeorfourdecadesago.

MoststateuniversitiesfaceevendeeperpressuresthanBerkeley,which

occupiesaspecialplaceinthepubliceyeandcanraiseprivatefundsaswell.

Oncehighwaystothemiddleclass,theseschoolsarereelingfromdecadesof

reducedsupportfromtheirstategovernmentsaswellasrisingcosts.Asaresult,

manyhavecreatedthe“partypathway,”describedinElizabethArmstrongand

LauraHamilton’sbookPayingfortheParty,inwhichanincreasingnumberof

richout-of-statekidswhocanpayfulltuitiongetrelaxedadmissionscriteria,

specialmajors,inflatedgrades,andfancyfacilities.Thebrightlow-income

students,whoareonthe“mobilitypathway,”getnoneofthis.Facingacademic,

economic,andsocialpressures,theyhaveahigherburnoutanddropoutrate.

Thosewhograduatedosowithamountainofdebt.

ThebestcollegesintheUnitedStatesaspiretoanideaofmerit,ofcreating

Jefferson’snaturalaristocracy.Andtheydogivescholarshipstomanystudents

whocouldnototherwiseaffordtobethere,thoughthisstillhelpsaverysmall

numberofpoorstudents.Inaddition,thenumberofpeopleapplyingtothetop

schoolshasexploded,andtheadmissionsratesarenowsolow,oftenunder10

percent,thattheadmissionsprocesscanseemquitearbitrary.Compoundingthe

problemisthefactthateliteschoolsprovidemanyspecialpreferencesfor

legacies,underrepresentedminorities,and—inthemostsignificantdeviation

frommerit—recruitedathletes.AformersenioradmissionsofficeratanIvy

Leagueschooltoldme,“Ihavetoturndownhundredsofhighlyqualified

applicants,includingmanytrulytalentedamateurathletes,becausewemusttake

somanyrecruitedathleteswhoarenarrowlyfocusedandlessaccomplished

otherwise.”Theproblem,ashenotes,isnotathleticsperse,whichcombines

talentanddisciplineinanexemplaryway.Itisthattheprocessofrecruitment

hasbecomesointensethatthesystemisnowdistorted.WilliamBowen,a

formerpresidentofPrincetonUniversity,hasdocumentedandargued

persuasivelythatoverthelastfewdecades,collegesportsprogramsthatrecruit

athleteshavewarpedthosecolleges’academicvalues.Anadmissionsofficial

toldmethatmanynowtakeinathleteswhoscore150to200pointsloweronthe

SATsthanotherstudents—amuchmoresignificantdropinstandardsthanfor

legaciesorminorities—tobuildtheirsportsteams.Therecruitedathletesoften

struggletokeepupwiththeacademicdemandsintheclassroom,whilegood

amateurathletesarefrozenoutofcollegesports.Theentireprocessshiftsthe

focusofthecampusawayfromacademics.Andyet,nopresidentofaliberalarts

collegedaressuggestthissystembechanged.

Ina2012essayintheAmericanConservative,Californiapoliticalactivist

RonUnzpresentedstatisticsseemingtoshowthatthenation’stopcollegesand

universitieshaveoverthepasttwodecadesmaintainedadefactoquotafor

AsianAmericanstudents,limitingthemtoabout16.5percentofthestudybody,

despitetheirexplodingapplicantnumbersandhighachievements.Thenumbers

maynotbeexactlyright.TwoIvyLeagueadmissionsofficersestimatedtome

thatAsianAmericansactuallymakeupmorethan20percentoftheirentering

classes—manydon’tdeclaretheirraceorareraciallymixed.Butincomparison,

atschoolsthatarelessreliantonnebulousadmissionscriteriasuchas

“character”andbeing“well-rounded,”likeCaltechandBerkeley,Asian

Americansmakeupabout40percentofthestudybody.WinnersoftheUnited

StatesOlympiadsinmathematics,computing,physics,biology,andchemistry

andoftheIntelScienceTalentSearchhavebeenmorethan60percentAsian

Americaninrecentyears.

AschoolfullofOlympiadwinnerswouldinfactlackbalance,and

achievementsbasedentirelyonnumbersandtestsarenottheonlymeasuresofa

student’spotential.Yetit’sworthbearinginmindthat,historically,collegeshave

employedintangiblecriteriainadmissionsspecificallytokeepoutbrightand

ambitiousnewcomers.InhisbookTheChosen:TheHiddenHistoryof

AdmissionandExclusionatHarvard,Yale,andPrinceton,JeromeKarabel

demonstratesinpainstakingdetailhowsubjectiveadmissionsrequirementslike

interviewsandinvolvementinextracurricularactivitieswereputinplacebyIvy

LeagueschoolslargelytokeepJewishadmissionsfromrisinginthe1920s

throughthe1940s.Unlessthereareaggressiveeffortstocompensateforthe

advantagesofwealth,includingattendanceatprivateschoolsandparticipation

inluxuryextracurricularpursuits,theAmericaneliteeducationalsystemrunsthe

risk,inJefferson’sterms,ofcreatinganunnaturalaristocracy.

Atonelevel,theseconcernsandcomplaintsmightseemirrelevant.American

collegesanduniversitiesarebooming.Theirsuccessandfamehaveattracted

applicantsfromaroundtheworld.Agoodcollegedegreehasbecomemore

crucialineveryone’smind.Thepost-industrialeconomyrewardspeoplewho

haveacademictrainingandcredentials,or“knowledgeworkers,”evenmoreso

thanbefore.Collegesportshavebecomemorepopularandmoreprofitablefor

theschools.Buttheyfaceonetrendthatseemsutterlyunsustainable:therising

costofcollege.Theaveragecollegetuitionhasincreasedataneye-poppingpace

—over1,200percentsince1978,thefirstyearcompleterecordswerekept.That

isfourtimesthepaceoftheconsumerpriceindexandtwiceasfastasmedical

costs.Thisextraordinarycostspiral,inanagewhenthepricesofalmostall

goodsandserviceshavedeclined,issurelyoneofthemoststrikingphenomena

inmodernAmericanlife,andithaslargelybeenacceptedwithoutmuch

controversy.

Thatriseincostisattheheartofmanyoftheconcernsaboutthevalueofa

liberaleducation.Afterall,whenoneisquestioningwhetheraproductis“worth

it”—beitanoutfit,acar,oraneducation—crucialtothatdeterminationisits

price.Aliberaleducationwasaffordabletoamiddle-classfamilyin1965.Itis

muchlesssotoday.Thatmeansfamilieshavetomaketrade-offsbetween

spendingmoneyonaneducationandearmarkingitforotherthings.It’soften

notedthatthedatashowthatacollegedegreeimprovesone’slifetimeearnings,

sothatevenalargeinvestmentinacollegeeducationisworthit.Thatmaybe

true,butitalsoexplainswhyfamiliessoanxiousaboutthisonerouspricetag

worryendlesslythattheirsonordaughtercouldjeopardizeeverythingby

majoringinthe“wrong”subjectorgettingalessmarketabledegree.Thefact

thatwenowusethelanguageof“returnoninvestment”todescribethe

experienceofgettingeducatedisrevealing.

Whyhasthecostofcollegerisensoquickly?Oneplausibleexplanation,

offeredbytheeconomistsWilliamBaumolandWilliamBowen,isthatcertain

labor-intensiveindustriessuchaseducationcan’treplacehumanswithmachines

orexpandproductionlinesinthewayotherindustriescan.Theeconomist

RobertFrankgivesanexcellentexampletoexplainthisbasicidea:“while

productivitygainshavemadeitpossibletoassemblecarswithonlyatiny

fractionofthelaborthatwasoncerequired,itstilltakesfourmusiciansnine

minutestoperformBeethoven’sStringQuartetNo.4inCminor,justasitdidin

the19thcentury.”Aseminarclassatagoodcollegewilltendtohavearatioof

oneprofessorto,say,fifteenstudents.Ifyoubelievethat’sthebestwaytoteach,

itcan’tbemademoreefficient.Thisiswhycostsineducationrisemuchfaster

thaninthegeneraleconomy,whereautomationandoutsourcingcanreplace

expensivelaborinsomewayortheother.It’strueinothersectorsofthe

economyaswell.IfyouarehappylisteningtoarecordingofthesameMozart

quartet,youcandoitvirtuallyforfree.Buttheliveexperiencehasbecomemuch

moreexpensiveovertheyears.Whetherit’stheBerlinPhilharmonicor

Beyoncé,themoneyisintheactualconcert,notthedigitalrecording.

Thereareprobablyotherfactorsaswell.Bowenpointsoutthatit’sdifficult

tomeasureproductivityinafieldlikeeducation—thatuniversitiesmighthave

inefficientadministrativesystems,ortheymightbepriceinsensitivewhenit

comestoacademicquality,spendingwhateverittakestobethebest.Allofthis

istrue.ButitmightalsobethattheentiresystemofeducationintheUnited

Statesisapoorlydesignedmishmash,combiningsomeoftheworstelementsof

themarketandthestate.Itsharesthischaracterwithhealthcare.Inbothcases,

theconsumerwantstheproductandyetcan’treallyjudgeitsquality.(Canyou

reallydecidethatyoudon’tneedanMRI?Oracollegedegree?)Additionally,

theconsumerdoesn’tpaydirectlyfortheproduct,atleastnotthefullprice.

Third-partypayments,oftenfromthegovernment,havecomplicatedprocesses

andtimelines,whichfurtherobscurepricesignalsandmarketdiscipline.Finally,

it’snotclearhowtojudgethevalueofaneducation.Isitjustthecollegedegree

thatmatters?Oristheresomebroadermeasureofagoodeducation?Andhow

wouldyoumeasurethelatter?Perhapsforthesereasons,overthelastthirty

years,whileinflationhasbeenwrungoutoftheAmericaneconomyinalmost

everyothersector,educationandhealthcarecostshaverisenannuallyatmany

timestherateofinflation.

Measuringthequalityofeducationturnsouttobeextremelycomplicated.

Mostcollegesarejudgedbyavarietyoffactors,includingresources,faculty,and

facilities.Chiefamongthem,though,istheaverageSATscoreofentering

freshmen.Yetthetestscoresusedinadmissionsareameasureofwhatcolleges

takein,notwhattheyproduce.ThefactthatanIvyLeagueschoolhasfreshmen

withhighSATscorestellsusthatitisagoodmagnetfortalentbutnothingelse.

Whatshouldmatterishowstudents,includingthosewithlowSATscores,

improveoverthecourseoftheirtimeinschool.Butwhatisthemeasureby

whichtojudgethatimprovement?AcademicallyAdrift,thebookmentionedin

thelastchapter,hasbroughtthisissuetothenationalfore.UsingtheCollegiate

LearningAssessmenttest,thebook’sauthorsfoundthat45percentofstudents

showednoimprovementincriticalthinkingintheirfirsttwoyearsofcollege.

Subsequenttestshavedemonstratedthatthispatterncontinuesintheirjuniorand

senioryearsaswell.Why?Asthebookshows,inmanycolleges,studentstake

easycourseswithfewassignmentsandlittlehomeworkorreading.Thisresults

inlittleimprovedoutput.

Ifthesearetheproblemsofaliberaleducationtoday,theremightbea

solutionintheformoftechnology.Educationisasphereofliferemarkably

unchangedoverthecourseofcenturies.Welearntodayinwaysthatwouldseem

largelyfamiliartotheancientGreeks.Ateacherstandsinfrontofagroupof

studentsandlecturesthem,attimesinvolvingthemindiscussion.Allthe

revolutionsininformationtechnologyinrecentdecadeshavehadhardlyany

effectonthisbasicmechanism,oronthefundamentaloperationsofschools,

colleges,anduniversities.

Untilnow.EnterMOOCs,orMassiveOpenOnlineCourses,amongother

onlinesystemsofinstructionthatpromise,orthreaten,tochangetheway

educationisprovidedintheUnitedStatesandaroundtheworld.MOOCsare

coursesthatcanbetakenonlinebywatchingvideosoflecturesandcompleting

assignmentsandteststhataregradedbycomputerprogramsorhumans.Insome

cases,studentsengageinvirtualclassroomdiscussionsthroughstructuredchat

roomsorbulletinboards.Sofar,MOOCsrarelyofferanyofficialformofcredit

—thoughthatislikelytochangeovertime.Thelargerideabehindthemis

simple.Acoursethatcouldbetakenbyafewhundredpeopleatauniversityis

nowavailabletotensofthousands,evenhundredsofthousands,acrossthe

globe.Byearly2014,thetwomainplatformsforMOOCsintheUnitedStates

hadaroundtenmillionstudentscollectively.Coursera,thelargestplatform,had

studentsfromnearlytwohundredcountriestakingalmostsixhundredcoursesin

avastdiversityoffields.MOOCsrepresentthemostambitiousefforttowiden

accesstoeducationinhistory.Andtheyhavealotofpeopleatuniversitiesvery

worried.

InOctober2012,Iwasaskedtomoderateapanelforaconferenceon

educationsponsoredbyTimemagazineandtheCarnegieEndowment.Mypanel

includedfourdistinguishedcollegepresidentsandAndrewNg,oneofthe

foundersofCoursera.Atthetime,Courserawasjusthalfayearold.Professor

Ng,aStanfordcomputerscientist,madeapresentationinwhichhespokeofthe

greatpotentialofMOOCsandofhisambitiontoprovideneweducational

opportunitiestomillionsofpeople.Usinghisowncourseasanexample,Ng

explainedhowonlinetechnologyhadmassivelyexpandedthenumberof

studentswhocouldenrollinasingleclass,fromfivehundredorsoatStanford

totensofthousandsonline.Hewasmodestandstressedthatthisnewmodelof

educationisinitsearlystagesandwouldneedmanyadjustments.

Theeducationalestablishmentcouldnothavebeenmoreskeptical.Allthe

collegepresidentsonthepanelexpressedconcernsanddoubtsaboutthisnew

technology,assuringtheaudience(mainly,othercollegepresidents)thata

physicalcampus,in-classteaching,andthepeerexperiencewouldalwaysbe

essentialandirreplaceableaspectsofhighereducation.“Lotsofpeoplesignup

butmostdropout,”theformerpresidentofoneprestigiousuniversity

complained.Ngacknowledgedthatthecompletionratewaslow,buthenoted

thatthecompletionratesforhisStanfordcoursesarealsolow.Hundredsof

peopleattendthefirstclassortwobutneverreturn.Anotherattendeeinsisted

thatvideolecturesbystarprofessorscouldneverreplacethepersonalinteraction

betweenscholarsandstudents.Ngagreed,remindingeveryonethatMOOCsare

intendedprimarilyforpeopleindevelopingcountrieswhowouldotherwisehave

littleaccesstothecollegeseminar.Healsonoted,however,thatthereislittle

contactbetweenprofessorsandstudentsinlargelecturecoursesatAmerican

universities.Ingeneral,thepanelistsandaudiencetreatedNgwithcourtesybut

persistentskepticism.Icouldn’ttelliftheyweresurehisnew-fangledideas

wouldn’tworkoriftheywereworriedthattheywould.A2013surveybearsout

thisanecdotalimpression.OnlyoneinfiveprofessorspolledbyGallupbelieve

thatonlineclassescouldbeaseffectiveasthein-classexperience.

Forme,thediscussionhadthefeelingofdéjàvu.Ihadspenttenyearsat

Newsweek,oneoftheworld’smostsuccessfulprintpublications,withtensof

millionsofreadersandhundredsofmillionsofdollarsinrevenues.Whilethe

Internetwasblossoming,wehadtoldourselvesthatwestillhadunique

advantages,thatpeoplewantedqualitiesparticulartoourproduct,thatthe

magazinebusinesshadgonethroughcyclicalchallengesbefore,andthatwe

wouldweatherthestorm.Asithappened,theTimeconferencewasheldonthe

daythatthefinaleditionofNewsweekwaspublished.(Ithassincebeen

resuscitatedwithamorelimitedcirculation.)Myonlysuggestiontotheaudience

aboutonlineeducationwasthattheykeepinmindNewsweek’sfate.TheInternet

wastransformingallindustriesinsomewayoranother.Thechancethatitwould

leaveeducationalonewashighlyunlikely—andtofailtorecognizethatwasnot

thewaytoplanforthefuture.

Theeducators’concernswereunderstandable.Tworecentstudiesfoundthat

ofmillionswhosignedupforMOOCsonthetwolargestonlineplatforms,only

4percent(forCoursera)and5percent(foredX)fullyfinishedthecourses.The

mediausedtheselowcompletionratestocastdoubtonthepromiseofthe

technologyandtosuggestthatMOOCshadbeenoverratedafterall.Butthisisa

misreadingoftheresults.Recallthatanyoneanywhereintheworld,withany

levelofeducation,cansignupforaMOOC.Thereisnobarriertoentry.Soit

shouldcomeasnosurprisethatmanyofthepeoplewhodosignuparenot

seriousaboutit.Courserareportsthatthedropoutrateafterthefirstweekisvery

high,almost40percent.Butthen,ofthosestudentswhostaywiththecourse

afterthefirstweek,nearly50percentcompleteit.Andkeepinmindthatthe

initialenrollmentnumbersaresolargethatevena5percentcompletionrateis

gigantic.In2012and2013,approximately43,000studentsfinishedthefirst

seventeencoursesofferedbyedX—anaverageof2,529studentsperclass,

whichwouldbeafivefoldexpansionofevenalargelecturecourse.Yale’sNobel

Prize–winningeconomistRobertShillertaughthiscourseonlinein2013forthe

firsttime.Morepeopletook(andcompleted)itinthatoneyearthanthetotal

numberofstudentshehadtaughtinhisthirty-twoyearsasaprofessor.

Thepotentialofonlineeducationisdazzling.Anyone,nomatterhowrichor

poor,youngorold,HaitianorMongolian,canaccesstheworld’sbestcourses,

watchthegreatestlectures,andstudythosesubjectsheorshehadalways

dreamedabout.KhanAcademy,theextraordinaryonlineplatformwiththree

thousanddifferentvideosthatteacheverythingfromalgebratobiologyto

history,hasalreadychangedthewaywethinkaboutlearning.Onecrucialnew

methodisthatof“flippingtheclassroom,”sothatstudentslisten(orwatch)a

lectureathomeandthenworkonproblemswithteachersinschool.Itisamuch

moreefficientandeffectiveuseofbothateacher’sandastudent’stimeand

energy—passivelearningathomebyyourself,activelearningatschoolwitha

teacherhelping.Likeanygreattechnologicalshift,MOOCsandsimilarventures

willhaverippleeffectsacrossthefieldofeducation.Theywillforceteachersto

dobetter,sincetheywillnowbemeasuredagainsttheworld’sbest.Theywill

pressurecollegestocontaincosts,perhapsfocusonthethingstheydowell,and

findnewwaystoenhanceproductivity.Theywillmakestudentsdecidewhat

reallymatterstothem—knowledge,credentials,classroomdiscussions—and

findthebestwaystogetit.Thebestcollegeswillfacefewerchallenges,partly

becausetheyofferauniqueexperienceandlargelybecausetheyareselling

membershiptoavaluableprivatenetworkingexperience.Butnewmodelsof

educationwillrise,liketheMinervaProject,afor-profitliberalartsschoolthat

providesapared-downcollegeexperienceusingonlineclassesandeliminating

costlyaccessorieslikefacilitiesandsportsteams.Andthisisjustthebeginning.

Onlinelearningtechnologywillpromptchangesinwayswehavenoteven

anticipatedyet.MOOCsarebarelythreeyearsold.

KeytotheinnovationsinteachingthatcouldcomefromMOOCsisthe

promiseof“bigdata.”Asmillionsofpeopletakeonlinecourses,theinstitutions

thatofferthemwillhaveimmenseamountsofinformationintheirsystems.

Properlyanalyzed,thisinformationcouldproducearevolutioninlearning.

Educationhasalwayssoughttocatertotheindividual.Ilearndifferentlythan

youdo,andideally,wewouldallbetaughtinwaysthataretargetedtoeachof

usspecifically.That’swhy,formostofhumanhistory,theveryrichhadtheir

childrentaughtbyprivatetutors.InhisbookTheOneWorldSchoolhouse,Khan

AcademyfounderSalmanKhanpointsoutthateducationtodayreliesona

modelfortheclassroomfromtheindustrialera.Inthemid-nineteenthcentury,

whenPrussiadecidedtoprovideeducationforthemasses,itmodeleditsschools

onthefactoriesofthetime.Studentswerebunchedtogetherbyageandputona

virtualconveyerbelt.Instructionwasthrownatthem,andtheypickedup

whatevertheycouldastheywerepushedforwardtograduation.Othercountries

usedsimilarmethods.Perhapsthiswastheonlywaytoeducatelargenumbersof

people,buteducationwasnotcustomizedtotheindividualinanysense.Infact,

themorepeoplewhohadtobeeducated,thelesscustomizedtheexperience.

Nowthatcanchange.Withbigdata—andstronganalysisandsmart

programsprocessingthatdata—educatorscanlearnagreatdealaboutwhatis

andwhatisn’tworking.Asstudentsprogressthroughacourse,theirteachers

couldgetfeedbackrelatedtoeachindividual’sperformance.Thesystemcould

useearlyindicatorslikeanswersonquizzesandproblemsetstocreatespecific

remedialcontent,changethepace,andtailorreadingandexamsinwaysthat

wouldbemosteffectiveforthatparticularstudent.Ifthousandsofstudents

aroundtheworldstumbledovercertainquestionsinquizzes,itwouldsenda

broadersignaltoeducatorsthattheteachingofthatsectionorthedesignofthe

testsrequiredfixing.Bigdatacouldbeanearlydetectionsystemthatallowedfor

quickcoursecorrections.

Awell-structuredonlinecoursethatusedthebenefitsofbigdatawouldthus

developlikeatree,witheachstudentproceedingdownaparticularsetof

branches,specificallytailoredtohisorherstrengthsandweaknesses.Thisisa

revolutionaryconceptbecauseitaltersoneofthefundamentalrulesof

education.Untilnow,ithadalwaysbeenassumedthatincreasingthenumberof

studentscouldbedoneonlyatthecostofprovidinglesspersonalattentionto

eachindividual.Inindustryjargon,scaleandcustomizationwereinversely

correlated.Butnow,scaleandcustomizationcanbepositivelycorrelated.The

morestudentswhotakeacourse,thelargerthedatabasecreated,whichcanthen

beanalyzedandappliedtopersonalizeeachstudent’sexperience.Thismightbe

thepathtohighlyeffectiveindividuallearningonamassscale.

YetthegreatestpromiseofMOOCs,andonlinelearningingeneral,remains

theoriginalintent:expandingaccess.StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić,aneducation

expertformerlywithUNESCO,notedin2011thatthenumberofpeople

enrolledinhighereducationacrosstheworldwas165million.Atcurrentgrowth

rates,thatnumberwouldreach263millionin2025.Butitwillbeimpossibleto

gettothosenumbersusingthepresentsystemofeducation.“Accommodating

theadditional98millionstudentswouldrequiremorethanfourmajor

universities(30,000students)toopeneveryweekforthenextfifteenyears,”

Uvalić-Trumbićexplained.Thatpaceofexpansionisnothappeninganywhere.

EveninChina,wherethegovernmenthasmadeamajorcommitmentto

enlargingaccesstohighereducation,thenumberofstudentsisgrowingata

muchfasterratethanthenumberoffacultyandfacilities.“Inevitably,the

greatestimpactofMOOCswillbeinthedevelopingworld,whereitwillbe

possibleformillionstogeteducatedwhosimplywouldnothaveotherwise,”

saysRichardLevin,theCEOofCoursera.Already,72percentofregistered

usersofedXcoursescomefromoutsidetheUnitedStates.

ThemakeupofthoseenrolledinMOOCsisquitediverse.Thevastmajority

arenotinthecollege-agecohort.Theyrangeinlevelsofeducation,thoughmost

haveacquiredsomepost-secondarydegree.Thecoursesofferedcoveramixof

preprofessionalandgeneraleducationtopics.AstudypublishedinNovember

2013foundthatofthestudentsenrolledinatleastoneofthethirty-twoMOOCs

offeredbytheUniversityofPennsylvaniathroughCoursera,50percentsaidthey

weretakingitoutofgeneralcuriosityor“justforfun.”Forty-fourpercentsaid

theywereenrolledto“gainspecificskillstodomyjobbetter.”Inotherwords,a

largeportionofMOOCusersareinterestedinacquiringaliberaleducation—or

enhancingtheonetheyreceivedyearsago.Wearemovingtowardatimewhen

anyonecangetelementsofaliberaleducationandyetbedisconnectedfromthe

experience—andcost—ofattendingaliberalartscollege.Isaid“elements”ofa

liberaleducation,asitmightwellbethatresidentialcolleges,classroom

seminars,late-nightdiscussions,andextracurricularactivitiesarecollectively

essentialtoprovidingthecompleteexperience.Certainlyforthebestcolleges—

say,thetopfiftyinAmericaorthetoponehundredworldwide—thebenefitsof

beingadmittedtoasmallclubwilljustifyasteepprice.Butthatdoesn’tmean

importantaspectsofthiseducationcannotbeprovidedtomillionsofpeople

aroundtheworldatafractionofthecost.Andifthevalueofaliberaleducation

isreal—inopeningthemind,preparingpeopleforthefast-changingworld,and

buildingacapacityforfreedom—thenthefactthatmillionsofpeopleinChina

andIndiaandRussiaandBrazilwillhaveaccesstoitiscauseforcelebration.

Let’sreturntothat2013studyshowingthathalfofthepeoplewhosignup

fortheseonlineclassesaredoingsonotjustforaspecificprofessionalpurpose.

Weseethesamephenomenonintheexplosionofinterestinadultlearning

courses,books,andvideos.Whyareallthesepeoplearoundtheworldsigning

upforcoursesinarthistoryandpsychologyandphysics?Ifitdoesn’thelpthem

getajob,whydotheywanttoknowthisstuff?

*Allspellingsandcapitalizationinwritingsbythefoundingfathershavebeenmodernizedwherenecessary.

†Atthetime,advocatesofeducation,BenjaminFranklinandThomasJeffersonincluded,thoughtitfitting

onlyforyoungwhitemen.

KnowledgeandPower

IFIGNORANCEISbliss,whydopeoplewantknowledge?Thisisaquestion

withalongpedigreeinWesternculture.PrometheusbroughtfirefromMount

Olympusdowntoearthanditsmortalinhabitants.Indoingso,heenragedZeus,

thesupremedeity,whohadhimchainedtoarockandtorturedforeternitybyan

eaglefeastingonhisliver.AndthatwasjustthepunishmentforPrometheus.

HumanbeingsweresentacurseintheformofPandora,withherboxofillsthat

wouldafflicthumankindforeveronceitwasunlocked—disease,sickness,

sorrow,envy,hatred.

Prometheus’sfiremayhavebeenametaphorforknowledge.InAeschylus’s

versionofthelegend,inadditiontotheburningbranch,Prometheusintroduced

humanstothearts,includingwriting,mathematics,astronomy,architecture,and

medicine.Inotherwords,Prometheusdecidedtobringaliberalartscurriculum

downfromtheheavens—andheandallofhumankindpaidadreadfulpricefor

it.

SodidAdamandEve.Thestoryattheheartofbiblicalhistoryisaboutthe

dangersofknowledge.AccordingtoGenesis,thereweremanytreesinthe

GardenofEden,butonlytwohadnames:theTreeofLifeandtheTreeof

Knowledge.GodforbadeAdamandEvefromeatingthefruitofthelatter,

warningthatiftheydid,theywoulddie.*Theserpent,representingSatan,told

thecouplenottobetimid,assuringthemthateatingthefruitwouldnotresultin

death.Goddidn’twantthemtoeatit,theserpenttoldEve,becauseiftheydid,

“youreyesshallbeopened,andyeshallbeasGods,knowinggoodandevil.”

SoAdamandEvepluckedthefruitandateit.WhenGodrealizedwhatthey

haddone,hewasmercilessinhispunishment.HetoldEve,“Iwillgreatly

multiplythysorrowandthyconception,”andthencondemnedwomenfor

eternitytothepainsofchildbirth.HetoldAdam,“Cursedisthegroundforthy

sake;insorrowshaltthoueatofitallthedaysofthylife.”And,ofcourse,he

banishedthemfromtheGardenofEden.Inotherwords,humanbeingscameto

earthasfallencreatures,borninoriginalsin,becausetheydesiredknowledge.

ThisnotionthatknowledgeisdangeroushasrecurredinWesternthoughtfor

millennia.GiventhattheWesthasmadesuchgreatstridesinitsunderstanding

oftheuniverse,itisinterestingtonotethatnon-Westernculturesdonothave

equivalentmythsabouttheperilsoflearning.Therearesomesimilarstoriesin

othercivilizations,butnothingwiththeimportofthetaleofPrometheusorthe

biblicalfallofman.PerhapsitisbecausetheWesthasbeensopersistently

inquisitivethatithasalsobeenfearfuloftheconsequencesofitscuriosity.

Thephrase“ignoranceisbliss”comesfromabeautifulpoem,“Odeona

DistantProspectofEtonCollege,”bytheeighteenth-centuryEnglishwriter

ThomasGray.Init,thepoetwritesofhisreturntohisoldschoolandisdelighted

toseethe“happyhills,...redolentofjoyandyouth.”Heconjuresupabucolic

fantasyofinnocentpleasures.Buthethenthinksaboutallthebadthingsthatare

instorefortheseyoungmenintherealworldoncetheyleavethecloistered

environmentofEton—fear,jealousy,anger,despair,poverty,death,and

“Sorrow’spiercingdart.”It’sbetterthattheynotbemadeawareofthese

realities.“Thoughtwoulddestroytheirparadise,”heconcludes,“where

ignoranceisbliss,/’Tisfollytobewise.”

Andyet,despitethedanger,despitethesorrow,wekeepaskingquestions

andsearchingforanswers.Cicerobelievedthatitwasinournaturetobe“drawn

tothepursuitofknowledge.”Manymodernbiologistsconcur,arguingthatthe

coreofbeinghumaninvolvestheuseofthebrain.Morethanthreemillionyears

ago,ourancestorsbegantowalkontheirhindlegs.Thatfreedtheirhandstodo

otherthingsand,mostsignificantly,coincidedwiththegrowthofthehuman

brain.Thebigbrainisthesinglelargestpointofdifferentiationbetweenhuman

beingsandotheranimals.RichardDawkinsexplainswhy:

Otherspeciescancommunicate,butnootherspecieshastruelanguagewithopen-endedgrammar.

Nootherspecieshasliterature,music,art,mathematicsorscience.Nootherspeciesmakesbooks,or

complicatedmachinessuchascars,computersandcombineharvesters.Nootherspeciesdevotes

substantiallengthsoftimetopursuitsthatdon’tcontributedirectlytosurvivalorreproduction.

Inthebeginning,beforewehumanswerewritingoperasandmakingiPads,

ourancestorscombinedtheirbrainpowerwiththeirhands—nowfreefromthe

taskofwalking—toforageforfoodandmakesimpletools.Theyusedtheir

primitivementalcapacitytofindwaystoimprovetheircircumstancesinthe

naturalenvironmentratherthansimplyadaptingtothemlikeallotheranimals.

AsJacobBronowskiwroteinTheAscentofMan,manbecame“asingular

creature...notafigureinthelandscape”but“ashaperofthelandscape.”

Humanssoughtwaystocontroltheirenvironmentandthusbecamehunter-

gatherers,farmers,warriors,and,eventually,buildersofcitiesandstates,of

civilizations.

Attheheartoffarmingandbuildingwasthesearchforknowledge,butofa

practicalkind.TheancientGreekswerethefirsttotrytounderstandtheworldin

anabstractsense.Theycalledsuchanexplorationphilosophy,whichmeans

“loveofwisdom.”Thisinvolvedunderstandingnotonlyhumannaturebutalso

natureitself.Thelatterexplorationtheycalled“naturalphilosophy”—which

muchlaterbecameknownasscience.Overtime,adividegrewbetweenthe

studyofhumanbeingsandthestudyofnature.Theformerseemedsoftand

speculative,thelatterhardanddefinitive.BertrandRussell,theearly-twentieth-

centuryscientistandphilosopher,oncepithilydescribedthedifferencebetween

scienceandphilosophy.“Science,”heexplained,“iswhatweknow,and

philosophyiswhatwedon’tknow.”Inthisview,philosophyinvolves

speculationsaboutthingsofwhichonecannothavedefiniteproof.Onceyou

gaincertaintyaboutaparticularsubject,itmovesfromtherealmofphilosophy

toscience.ForRussell,philosophywasimmenselyimportantbecausetherewas

avastarrayofthingsonedidnotknowmuchaboutandperhapscouldnotknow

muchabout.Butphilosophystillwas,inhisphrase,“incompletescience.”The

wordscience,afterall,comesfromtheLatinwordfor“toknow.”

Russell’snotionofphilosophyasaprecursortosciencemakessomesense

historically.Humanbeingswonderedwhythesunroseorthetidescamein,and

speculatedthatthereweredivinespiritsbehindthem.TheGreekspositedall

kindsofcausesfornaturalphenomena,oftenattributingthemtogodsand

goddesses,butalsotophysicalandbiologicalfactors.Overthecourseof

centuries,scientificinquiry—theorizing,experimentation,observation—

rejected,corrected,andamendedmanyofthesetheories.Wenolongerthinkthat

therearespiritsintrees,thattheSunGodrideshischariotacrosstheskiesevery

day,orthatfemaleembryosarecreatedduetoa“deficiencyofheat”inthebody

(Aristotle’sexplanation).Wenolongerthinkthattheearthisflatorthatitisat

thecenteroftheuniverse,twoviewsthatwerewidespreadamonglearned

scholarsforcenturies.Sciencereplacedphilosophy,inRussell’sterms.

Thesearchforknowledgegavehumanbeingspower,justastheBible

anticipated,andthatpowerhasbeenusedforgoodandill.Butonthewhole,

therehasbeenasteadyandpersistentefforttoimprovehumanlife.Progressin

technologyandmedicinecertainlyhasdarksideeffects—thedangersofnuclear

war,theimpactofeconomicgrowthontheenvironment,themoraldilemmasof

cloning.Overthelastfivehundredyears,however,theconsequencesof

knowledgehavebeenpositive,andoverthelasttwohundred,staggeringly

positive.Atthemostbasiclevel,peopleenjoylongerandhealthierlives,possess

greatermaterialprosperity,andareorganizedinwaysthathavereducedcruelty

andmisery.

Justasareminderofwhatscientificprogressmeansforhumans,hereisa

briefaccountofhowoneofthemostpowerfulmenoftheseventeenthcentury,

CharlesIIofEngland,wastreatedafterhehadamildstrokein1685(from

whichhealmostcertainlywouldhaverecoveredonhisown).Hisfourteen

physicians,thebestintheland,beganbybleedinghim,takingapintofblood.

Theking’schiefphysiciandecidedtheyhadnotgonefarenoughandremoved

anextraeightouncesbycuttingintotheking’sshoulders.Vomitingwasinduced

andpurgativesandenemasdelivered.Charlesregainedconsciousness,butover

thenextfivedays,hisphysicianscontinuedtoadministerenemasandbleedings.

Hewasgivensneezingpowder,forcedtodrinkvariouspotions,andhisfeet

weresmearedwithpigeondung.Finally,afteranantidotecontaining“extractsof

alltheherbsandanimalsofthekingdom”wasforceddownhisthroat(according

tohisphysician’sjournal),thekingdied.Andthatwastheworld’sfinesthealth

careatthetime.

LifeexpectancyaroundthetimeofCharlesIIwasaboutthirtyyears,andit

remainedroughlythesameuntil1900.Lifeexpectancytodayisseventyyears

fortheworldpopulationasawhole,andhigherforpeopleinadvanced

countries.Recentmaterialprogresshasbeenastonishing.Beforetheturnofthe

millennium,theUnitedNationsestimatedthatglobalpovertyhaddeclinedmore

inthesecondhalfofthetwentiethcenturythaninthepriorfivehundredyears.

TheaverageChinesepersontodayisfortytimesricherandlivesthirtyyears

longerthanheorshedidfiftyyearsago.China’sprogressisthemost

remarkable,butitiswidelyshared.In1960,nearlyoneinfivechildrendied.

Todaytheratioisoneintwenty.Itisquitepossiblethatextremepoverty—lifeon

lessthan$1.25aday—willbeextinctinageneration.

Thesenumbersareseenmostlyasatestamenttoscientificknowledge.And,

ofcourse,it’sself-evidentthatmedicine,vaccines,andhygienehaveall

contributedmightilytotheimprovements.Butthesoftersciencesand

humanitieshavealsoyieldedpowerfulbenefits.Humanbeingshaveorganized

themselvesinmoreproductiveways,economically,politically,andsocially.And

thesechangesinorganizationandbehaviorhavebeentheresultofbetterideas,

sometimesarrivedatthroughspeculationandinsight,thoughmostlythrough

trialanderror—whichistheonlywaythatexperimentsinsocialsciencecan

takeplaceintherealworld.

InhisbookTheRationalOptimist,MattRidleynotesthatovertime,human

beingslearnedthatopenexchanges—ofideas,goods,andservices—produced

powerfulbenefitsforall.Healsoexplainsthattheriseofspecialization,orthe

divisionoflabor,increasedeconomicoutputacrosstheglobe.Ideaslikethese

wereadoptedhaltingly,withmanystepstakenbackwardaswellasforwardas

theunsuccessfulcopiedthesuccessful.InTheBetterAngelsofOurNature,

StevenPinkermakesthenowfamousclaimthatwearelivinginthemost

peacefultimeinhumanhistory.Hearguesthattheriseofcertainideashashada

powerful,beneficialimpactontheworld.TheEnlightenmentconceptsof

individualliberty,autonomy,anddignity,forinstance,andthebeginningofa

“humanitarianrevolution”transformedtheworldbyendingpracticeslike

slavery.Pinkeralsowritesaboutthemorerecent“rightsrevolutions,”which

haveledtolesscrueltytowardminorities,women,gays,andotherswhowere

notatthecenteroftheoldpowerstructuresofsociety.

Somehumanistsbalkattheideathathumanbeingshavemadeanyprogress

inthesefundamentalways.ArewebetteroffthantheancientGreeks?they

mightask.Theanswerisyes,overwhelmingly,unlessyouwereoneofthe

handfulofmaleGreekaristocrats(andeventhen,aslongasyoudidn’tgeta

toothache).Practiceslikeslavery,serfdom,dueling,andtheabuseofwomenand

childrenhavedwindledoverthelastfewcenturies—asaconsequenceofbroad,

humanisticideas,thebedrockofaliberaleducation.Tobesure,moreprogressis

needed,andinsomecases,newandperverseformsofoppressionhavereplaced

theold-fashioned,easilyidentifiableones.Butthatcannotnegatetherealitythat

knowledgehasledtohumanadvancesintangibleways.

Fourhundredyearsago,absolutemonarchsgovernedmuchoftheworld,and

thevastmajorityofthehumanpopulationpossessedlittleeconomicandpolitical

freedom.Today,mostpeopleliveindemocracies,andwhatevertheirflaws,they

areusuallybetterthantherapaciousdictatorshipsofthepast.Untilrecently,a

country’seconomicpoliciesweredesignedtoproducethemaximumbenefitfor

atinyelite.ThinkofAfricainthenineteenthcentury,wherewholenationswere

turnedintoregionsofslavelaborandeconomicextraction,tobenefitasmall

numberofEuropeans.Whatfollowedafterdecolonizationinthe1950swere

localdictatorswhowereequallybrutalandrapacious.Today,Africaisstillhome

tosomedictatorshipsandfacesrampantcorruptionincertainareas.But

comparedwiththreedecadesago—oracenturyago—therehasbeensignificant

progressalongalmosteverypolitical,economic,andsocialmeasure.

Thefundamentalreasonfortheriseoftherest—thefactthatdeveloping

countriesaregrowingmuchfasterthanindecadespast—hastodowiththe

diffusionofknowledge.WhenIvisitdevelopingcountries,nearlyeverywhereI

findtheyarerunmoreeffectivelytodaythantheyweredecadesago.Thoseat

thehelmofeconomicpolicyarealmostinvariablygraduatesofprogramsin

economicsfromWesternuniversities.Theystudiedat,say,theUniversityof

Chicago,orGeorgetown,ortheLondonSchoolofEconomics,andthenreturned

totheircentralbanksandfinanceministriestoimplementsomeofwhattheyhad

learned.Healthcareisbeingprovidedinamoresystematicandthoughtfulway,

basedonideasthathavebeentriedandprovedelsewhere.Thesekindsof

policiesarereinforcedbyabroadercultureofeducationalexchangethattakes

placethroughconferences,meetings,publications,andtelevisedconversation.

It’snotperfectbyanymeans,butit’salotbetterthanitwasthirtyyearsago.

Socialscienceisnotscience—because,astheNobelPrize–winning

economistHerbertSimonputit,“thesubjectsofourstudythink”—butsome

academiclearninghasbeenappliedintherealworld.Governmentshavecome

toadoptbestpracticesfromthesocialsciences,thoughtherearelimitsto

progressinfieldsasmessyaseconomicsandpoliticalscience.Evensteps

forwardproduceahostofunintendedconsequencesthathavetobedealtwith.

Advancedindustrialcountriescontinuetofacemanyproblemstoday.Yet

considertheirexpansiveambitions:toprovideeconomicgrowthandsocial

securityforeveryoneoftheircitizens.Governmentshavenevertriedtodoso

muchforsomany.

Knowledgecanbeusedforterriblepurposes.Fascism,communism,and

Islamicfundamentalismhaveallmanagedtoweaveadangerousideologyoutof

elementsofknowledge.Butpeoplehavealwayssoughtpower,andsomeof

themhavejustifiedthatpursuitthroughbadideas.Theseideas,inalmostall

suchcases,arecoversforpowergrabs.That’snottosaythatideasdonothavea

lifeoftheirown.Nationalismandreligioncanbepowerfulideologiesthathold

societiestogetherandstirhumanbeingstoaction,evenhorrificviolence.But

historically,thishasnotbeenenoughtoproducerealsuccess,thekindthat

produceslong-termtrendsinasociety’sfavor.Governmentsorganizedaround

badpoliticalandeconomicideashaverequiredforce,coercion,andbriberyto

succeed—andthesearedifficulttosustain.CountrieslikeNaziGermanyand

SovietRussiafailedbecauseothercountries,suchastheUnitedStates,opposed

them.AndfreesocietieslikeAmericaprevailedinlargepartbecausetheyhad

greaterstayingpower,becausetheirorganizingideasweresuperior.U.S.

strategymighthavebeenbetterthanGermany’sandtheSovietUnion’sinWorld

WarIIandtheColdWar,buttherealcauseofvictorywastheabilityoftheU.S.

economytooutproducetheNaziandSovieteconomies.Inthelongrun,societies

basedonsubmissiongenerallyfindthemselvesatoddswithnaturalhuman

impulses.Theonesthathavesucceededinsomefashion,likeChina,have

actuallyallowedagreatdealoffreedomandautonomyinseveralspheresof

societywhilemaintainingcontrolinothers.ThemoreChinaopensitselfuptoa

broadexplorationofknowledge,tohumanisticideas,toopenexchanges—in

otherwords,thevaluesthatliberaleducationcelebrates—themorethe

governmentwillstruggletomaintainitstightpoliticalcontrol.

TheNewYorkTimescolumnistNicholasKristofhaspointedtothreeideas

associatedwiththehumanitiesthathavepositivelyshapedtheworld.First,he

notesthephilosopherIsaiahBerlin’swarningthatthebeliefinasingle,all-

encompassingtruthinevitablyproducesblindarrogance,possiblyleadingto

dangerousconsequences.Second,hehighlightsJohnRawls’scontributionto

politicalthought:thatthemostjustsocietywouldbetheoneyouwouldchoose

ifyoudidnotknowhowrichorpoororhowtalentedoruntalentedyouwere

whenbornintoit.Sincethoseareoftenmattersofgeneticsandluck,Rawls

positedthatweshouldjudgeasocietyfrombehindthis“veilofignorance.”

Lastly,KristofhighlightstheworkofPeterSinger,whohasbroughtthe

treatmentofanimalsandthepainthathumanbeingsoftenneedlesslycausethem

totheforeofourmoralconsciousness.Thesearejustafewexamples.Thereare

manyotherideasinthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesthatrepresent,insome

wayoranother,anaccumulationofknowledgeandagrowthininsightmarking

anadvanceinhumanaffairs.

Ofcourse,mostpeoplereadbooks,understandscience,andexperienceart,

nottochangetheworld,buttochangethemselves.Butisourcurrentsystemof

liberaleducationchangingyoungpeopleforthebetter?

*Therearethosewhoarguethatthetreeisreallyanarbitrarysignofobedience.ButastheMiltonscholar

DavidScottKastannotesinhisintroductiontoParadiseLost(Indianapolis:Hackett,2005),xlv,whythen

isitnotcalledthe“TreeofObedience”?Theforbiddenfruitofknowledgeisclearlycentraltothestory.

InDefenseofToday’sYouth

ONEOFTHEenduringbenefitsofaliberaleducationisthatitbroadensus.

Whenweabsorbgreatliterature,wecomefacetofacewithideas,experiences,

andemotionsthatwemightneverotherwiseencounterinourlifetime.Whenwe

readhistory,weencounterpeoplefromadifferentageandlearnfromtheir

triumphsandtravails.Whenwestudyphysicsandbiology,wecomprehendthe

mysteriesoftheuniverseandhumanlife.Andwhenwelistentogreatmusic,we

aremovedinwaysthatreasoncannotcomprehend.Thismaynothelpmakea

living,butitwillhelpmakealife.Weallplaymanyroles,professionaland

personal,inonelifetime.Aliberaleducationgivesusagreatercapacitytobe

goodworkers,butitwillalsogiveusthecapacitytobegoodpartners,friends,

parents,andcitizens.

Doesaliberaleducationmakeusbetterhumanbeings?Studentsatcolleges

anduniversitiescertainlygetahigh-quality,expensiveeducationaspreparation

tosucceedintheoutsideworld.But,accordingtomanycritics,eventhebest

students—andsometimesespeciallythebest—arelimitedincrucialways.Toput

itbluntly,thechargeisthattheyareachievement-orientedautomatons,focused

onthemselvesandtheircareers.Theydonotseeminterestedindelvingdeep

intothesearchforinnerknowledge,givingreigntotheirpassions,ordeveloping

theircharacter.The“MeGeneration”wasthenamegiventothebabyboomers.

Timemagazineranacoverin2013onthemillennialswiththetitle“TheMeMe

MeGeneration.”

Inearly2001,thecolumnistDavidBrookswroteanowfamousessayinthe

Atlantictitled“TheOrganizationKid,”basedondaysofmeetingshehadwith

studentsandprofessorsduringavisittoPrincetonUniversity.Intheessay,

BrooksdescribedthenextgenerationofAmericanleadersandtheirdaily

schedule:“Crewpracticeatdawn,classesinthemorning,resident-adviserduty,

lunch,studygroups,classesintheafternoon,tutoringdisadvantagedkidsin

Trenton,acappellapractice,dinner,study,sciencelab,prayersession,hitthe

StairMaster,studyafewhoursmore.”It’sanimpressivelist,butBrooksfound

thatthisintensesetofactivitieswasmostlyintheserviceofbuildingaresume

andcamewithlittleintellectualcuriosity.Evenmorenoticeable,tohim,wasthe

totallackofdesiretothinkaboutmoralissues,tobeintrospective,ortofocuson

thebuildingofcharacterorvirtue.Intheend,heconcluded:

AtthetopofthemeritocraticladderwehaveinAmericaagenerationofstudentswhoare

extraordinarilybright,morallyearnest,andincrediblyindustrious.Theyliketostudyandsocialize

ingroups.Theycreateandjoinorganizationswithgreatenthusiasm.Theyareresponsible,safety-

conscious,andmature.Theyfeelnocompellingneedtorebel—notevenahintofone.Theynot

onlydefertoauthority;theyadmireit.“Alienation”isawordonealmostneverhearsfromthem.

Theyregardtheuniverseasbeneficent,orderly,andmeaningful.Attheschoolsandcollegeswhere

thenextleadershipclassisbeingbred,onefindsnotangryrevolutionaries,despondentslackers,or

darkcynicsbuttheOrganizationKid.

In2014,theessayistWilliamDeresiewiczsteppedupthecriticismwithhis

bookExcellentSheep:TheMiseducationoftheAmericanEliteandtheWaytoa

MeaningfulLife.Init,Deresiewiczrecountshisexperiencesteaching

undergraduatesatYaleanddescribesthemashavingspenttheirlivesgetting

readytoattendelitecollegesbutlackinganysenseofdirectiononcethey

arrived.Theyhadjumpedthroughonehurdleafteranotherinordertogeta

liberaleducation,buttheydidn’tknowwhattodowithitoncetheyhadtheir

degree.Asaresult,Deresiewiczfindsthemtobeprivileged—“entitledlittle

shit[s]”isthephraseheuses—butintellectuallyandmorallyuncurious,

uninterestedinexploringthelargerquestionsaboutthemeaningoflife,and

unwillingtotakeintellectualrisks.Theyarecomfortablybourgeoisand

achievementoriented,buttheycarelittleabouttheinnerselfandthesoul.

Thenotionthatyoungpeoplearesomehowcallowandmorallyunseriousis

notanewcharge.In700BC,theGreekpoetHesiodwroteaboutit.The

philosophersXenophonandPlatoweredismayedbythemoraldecayoftheir

youth.TheRomanssawlossofvirtueallaroundthem.TheVictoriansdecried

thedeclineinreligiosityinthenextgeneration.AndwhileAmericahasalways

beendifferent—bornnew,focusedonthefuture,itselfanexperimentin

modernity—ithashaditsowntraditionofjeremiads.FromthePuritanstoHenry

DavidThoreau,toconservativeshorrifiedbythe1960s,toChristopherLasch,

whowroteTheCultureofNarcissismin1979,theyallworriedaboutanew

generationthatwaslessinterestedincommunityandmoreinterestedinitself.

Themostrecentroundofcritiquesbeganwiththeconservativeintellectual

AllanBloomandthepublicationofhis1987book,TheClosingoftheAmerican

Mind.Butsincethen,conservativesandliberalshavejumpedinwithequal

fervor.Brooks,Deresiewicz,andAnthonyKronman,formerdeanoftheYale

LawSchool,havealljoinedthechorus,soundingasimilar,plaintivetone.But

mostofthecomplaintstodayarequitedifferentfromthereactionaryconcernsof

thepast.Aftercenturiesofbemoaningthefactthattheyoungaretoorebellious

anddisrespectful,theproblemtoday,itappears,isthattheyarenotrebellious

anddisrespectfulenough.Theyaren’twillingtochallengeconventionalwisdom,

neithertheliberalpietiesthatoffendedAllanBloomnortheconservativeones

thatgallDeresiewicz.Afterhavingbeenpilloriedfortryingtodestroythe

bourgeoisorderinthe1960sand1970s,theyoutharenowscornedforbeingtoo

bourgeois.Toomanyyoungpeople,itseems,arewelladjusted,responsible,and

lookingforgoodjobs.Ifonlytheywouldwanderoffcampusandstudytantric

rituals,smokepotandreadHegel,andstageasit-inortwo—thentheywould

showustheirinnersouls.(Ofcourse,imaginethereactionofmanyofthesame

criticswerethecollegestudentsactuallytodothat!)Youcan’thelpbut

sympathizewiththesophomorewhosaidtome,“Ithinkthatwhateverwedid,

wewouldbefallingshortbysomemeasure—andpeoplewouldwriteabout

that.”

Infact,thepicturethatthecriticspaintcertainlydoesringtrueinitsfocuson

thecultureofachievementthatdominatesstudentlivesatthetopeducational

institutionstoday.Butit’sstrangetoblamethestudentsforsomethingthatis

largelybeyondtheircontrol.Afterall,theydidnotdevisetheintensesystemof

teststhatcomprisethegatewaytoAmericanhighereducation,nordidthey

createthehighlycompetitivejobmarketinanxiouseconomictimes.Admissions

officesnowprizenothinglessthanperfection.Ionceaskedtheheadof

admissionsatanIvyLeaguecollege,“Doyoutakeinmanykidswhohavefailed

insomesignificantwayinhighschool?”Heimmediatelyanswered,“No,that

wouldplacethematadisadvantagecomparedwithotherswithbetterrecords.”I

pointedoutthathowonerespondstoandrecoversfromfailureisoneofthe

mostimportantcharacteristicsofanindividual,probablyonethatrevealsmore

abouthisorherfuturesuccess.Theadmissionsofficer,adeeplyeducated

scholar,saidheunderstood,butnotedthatifheadmittedkidswhohadfailedin

someway—withtranscriptsandSATscoresreflectingthisfailure—thecollege

woulddropinitsrankingsandits“win-lossratio”againstotherkeyschools(that

isthepercentageofstudentswho,whenadmittedtotwoschools,acceptone

overtheother).Thepressureisintense,forthecollegesandthekids.Isitsucha

wonderthatstudentsrespondastheydo?

Thepressuredoesn’tstoponcetheygetintocollege.Theracecontinueswith

markerssetuptopointthemtowardsummerjobs,internships,andfellowships,

andfinallyfull-timejobs.Theprocessofgettinghiredataprestigiousbankor

consultingfirmnowinvolvesamarathonofinterviewsandexaminations,with

thousandsapplyingforthefewpositionsonoffer.Butthecriticsseemtofeel

thatinconfrontingthisgruelingsystemofrewards,kidsshouldtakeiteasy,

relax,followtheirbliss,andsearchfortheirsouls.Apparently,GoldmanSachs

willunderstand.

Moreover,students’focusonachievementhasnot,sofarasIcantell,

producedyoungmenandwomenwhoare,insomeway,mean,selfish,orcruel.

There’sreallynoevidenceforthisatall.Theyareprobablylessbigoted,racist,

andsexistthanpriorgenerationsofstudents,somethingthat’seasytocaricature

aspoliticalcorrectnessbutisadmirablenonetheless,especiallyifyou’rea

minority,awoman,orgay.Ihavespenttimeoncollegecampusesandaround

youngpeople,andcertainlyIfindthemtobethoughtful,interesting,and

stimulating.ProfessorStevenPinker,whohasspentmuchmoretimewith

collegestudents(teachingthem),haswritteninthesamevein.Buttheseare

anecdotes.Isthereanyevidence?Infact,thereis.Since1966,UCLA’sHigher

EducationResearchInstitute(HERI)hasaskedincomingcollegefreshmenaset

ofquestions.Thedatacollectedshowthefollowing:Overthelastfourdecades,

studentshavebecomemoreconsciousoftheneedtomakemoney.Butmuchof

thatchangetookplacefrom1967to1987,andthepercentageoffreshmenwho

identify“becomingwellofffinancially”asapersonalobjectivehassteadied

significantlysincethen.That’ssurelyarationalresponsetoaneconomythathas

producedfewergoodjobs,wherethemedianincomehasflatlined,andwhere

globalizationandtechnologyarereplacingallkindsofonce-privilegedtasks.In

suchcircumstances,tobeconcernedaboutone’sfuturemightbeasignof

intelligence!Otherlifeobjectivesthathaveriseninimportancetostudentsare

“becomingacommunityleader,”“helpingotherswhoareindifficulty,”and,

interestingly,“makingatheoreticalcontributiontoscience,”noneofwhichare

signsofselfishness.

Thedataalsoshowthatstudentstodaycombinetheirworldlyaspirations

withastrongdesiretodogood.Thenumberswhovolunteerforprogramslike

thePeaceCorpsandAmeriCorpshaverisensubstantially.In2014,Teachfor

Americareceivedoverfiftythousandapplications,morethantwicethenumber

receivedin2008.Manytalentedandhighlycredentialedstudentschoosetowork

atnonprofitsforawhile.It’struethatnongovernmentalorganizationshave

becomecool,butthatisthepoint.Theyhavebecomecoolpreciselybecause

youngpeopletodayviewthemasavaluableandworthwhilewaytospendpart

—orall—oftheirlives.Asmuchasanygenerationbeforethemthatmighthave

goneintopoliticsandgovernmentorvolunteeredforwarandexploration,they

wanttodogood,changetheworld,andfollowtheirprinciples.Theyjustdoitin

anincremental,practical,best-practiceskindofway—moreMcKinseythan

MotherTeresa.

Somewhatdifferentfrom“collegestudents”arethemillennials—generally

thetermisusedforpeoplebornfrom1980to2000.Thechargesagainstthem

aresimilar,though,andnastier.ThecoverstoryinTimemagazinementionedat

thebeginningofthischapter,andwrittenbyitstalentedhumorcolumnistJoel

Stein,accusesthemillennialsofnarcissism,entitlement,and(thisisanewone)

laziness.Thefirstchargeispresentedasa“cold,hard”fact.CitingtheNational

InstitutesofHealth,Steinwrites,“Theincidenceofnarcissisticpersonality

disorderisnearlythreetimesashighforpeopleintheirtwentiesasforthe

generationthat’snow65orolder.”ButasthejournalistElspethReevehas

pointedout,thisfindingisdisputedbyotherscholarswhoarguethattheresearch

merelyshowsallyoungpeopletendtobesomewhatnarcissisticbutthatthe

narcissismfadesovertime—forall.Or,toquotefromthe2010studythatReeve

cites,“First,weshowthatwhennewdataonnarcissismarefoldedinto

preexistingmeta-analyticdata,thereisnoincreaseinnarcissismincollege

studentsoverthelastfewdecades.”Asforslothfulness,thereisreallyno

evidenceforthisatall.ThebasicproblemforAmericanworkersofallageshas

beenthattheirhoursandproductivitykeeprisingbuttheirwagesdonot.

A2014Nielsenreport,Millennials:BreakingtheMyths,offerssomedataon

thegeneration’sattitudetowardvolunteering.In2011,75percentmadea

donationtoacharity,71percentraisedmoneyforone,and57percent

volunteered,“morethananyothergeneration.”Thethreecausestheycarethe

mostabout,accordingtothereport,areeducation,poverty,andtheenvironment.

AstudyofthegroupsponsoredbytheCaseFoundation,alsoin2014,cameto

verysimilarconclusions.Ofthe87percentofmillennialswhohaddonatedtoa

nonprofit,morethanhalfhadgivenmorethanonehundreddollars.Ina“TED

Talk”explainingthebehaviorofmillennials,marketingexpertScottHess

contraststhemwiththeirpredecessors,“GenerationX.”Insteadofbeing

“slackers,”“judgmental,”and“anti-corporate,”hesaid,millennialsare“leaning

forward,”“engaged,”“inclusive,”and“tolerant,”andtheybelievethat

“commerce”canbe“lubricatedbyconscience.”Andunlikegenerationsright

beforethem,theydon’tviewtheirparentsasadversariesbutratherasfriends

andhelpers.PerhapsIsaythisbecauseI’maparent,butisthissoterrible?

Aconstantrefrainonehearsabouttheyoung,whethermillennialsorstudents

oryoungworkers,isthattheyareutterlyfocusedonthemselves.Theysetup

theirownFacebookpages,tweet,andsendpicturesofthemselveseatingor

playingsports.InatalkatPrincetoninNovember2012,DavidBrookspraised

theself-abnegationofGeneralGeorgeMarshall,whorefusedtoaskfor

commandofOperationOverlord—theD-dayinvasionofEurope—becausehe

thoughtitwouldbeself-serving.IlovethatstoryaboutMarshallmyself,butI

alsorecognizethathelivedinadifferentage.Thoseweretimeswhenlarge

institutions—privateandpublic—dominatedlife.Theywerepowerfuland

stable,andtheylookedafterindividualsfortheirentirecareers.Yourtaskwasto

fitin,toputtheinterestoftheinstitutionaboveyourown,tobeagoodteam

player.Thenyouwouldberewardedwithsecurityandsuccess.(Marshallwas

subsequentlyappointedsecretaryofstate,thensecretaryofdefense.)Today,

everyoneistold,thatcompacthasbeenbroken.Everythingisinflux.Youmust

beentrepreneurialandrecognizethatyouwillneedtochangejobsandeven

careersoveralifetime.Nocompanywillstayloyaltoyou,norcanyoulock

yourselfintooneplace.Thebillionaire-founderofLinkedIn,ReidHoffman,

wroteabooktitledTheStart-upofYou:AdapttotheFuture,InvestinYourself,

andTransformYourCareer,toexplainhowtosucceedintoday’sworld.The

ultimateirony,surely,isthattheverycommentatorswhoareurgingyoung

Americanstobelessself-obsessedarebusilybuildingtheirownpersonalbrands,

completewithwebsites,Facebookpages,andTwitteraccounts.Ifit’srightfor

them,whyisitnotrightforeveryoneelse?

Somethingstheyoungdon’tdo.Ingeneral,politicalactivismoncampuses

hasdeclinedinrecentdecades—despitespikesduringthefirstReaganand

Obamacampaigns.Butthatlackofenthusiasmforpoliticsagainreflectsa

broadersocialtrend.MostAmericansaredeeplydisenchantedwithpolitics.

YoungerAmericansbelievethattheU.S.governmenthasbecomedysfunctional

andpolarized.Theyoungmightchoosetoeffectsocialchangebyworkingwith

NGOsratherthanworkingforgovernment,butthatisaboutthemechanismnot

thegoal.Andgiventhestateofpolitics,thebureaucracyofgovernment,andthe

intrusionsofahyperactivemedia,surelytheyarebeingrational,maybeeven

wise.

PerhapsthemoststrikingresultfromtheHERIsurveyinvolvesthebroadest

issue:thenumberofincomingfreshmenwhoconsider“developingameaningful

philosophyoflife”essentialorveryimportanthasplummetedfrom86percentin

1967to45percentin2013.ThatnumberisprobablywhatBrooks,Deresiewicz,

andothersaredescribinginricherdetailintheirportrayalsofcollegecampuses

today.Anditmakesthemworriedaboutthepresentandnostalgicforanearlier

age.

Iunderstandthenostalgia.Today’sstudentsdon’tseemasanimatedbybig

argumentsasgenerationsofthepastdid.Theydon’tmakebigspeechesabout

grandphilosophicalissues.Theydon’tstayuplatearguingaboutNietzscheor

MarxorTolstoy.Butthatispartofthetenorofthetimes,somethingstudents

reflectratherthancreate.WhenIwasgrowingup,theColdWarwasraging,and

thatmeanttherewasagreatcontestofideastakingplacearoundtheworld.

PeoplewonderedwhethercountriessuchasIndiawouldgocapitalist,

communist,orsomethinginbetween.Thesepoliticalideasmatteredtopeople—

youngandold—andhadhugeconsequences.Andthepoliticalideas,inturn,

restedonlargephilosophicalideasaboutthenatureofhumanbeingsand

societies.Iarrivedatcollegein1982,which,itturnedout,coincidedwiththe

lastgaspoftheideologicalbattlethathaddominatedthetwentiethcentury.

RonaldReaganhadcometopowerandhadcalledtheSovietUnionanevil

empire.TheSovietswerestillonthemarchinmuchoftheThirdWorld.

Communismandcapitalismwerestillideasinbattlearoundtheworld.

MyfriendsandIwouldsitaroundincoffeeshopsandpassionatelydebate

theAmericannuclearbuildup,theproxywarinCentralAmerica,Reagan’sand

Thatcher’spolicies.Thedivisionsweredeep,theanswerswereunknown,and

theconsequenceswerebelievedtobehuge.In1983,ABCairedatelevision

moviecalledTheDayAfter,dramatizingwhatlifeinAmericawouldlooklikein

thewakeofanuclearwar.Itranfortwohoursinprimetimeandwasfollowed

byaninterviewofthensecretaryofstateGeorgeShultzandalongdiscussion

includingHenryKissinger,ElieWeisel,CarlSagan,WilliamBuckley,and

RobertMcNamara.Forweeksafterward,peopletalkedaboutthemovieandthe

politicsandethicsinvolvedinmakingit.Collegestudentsweredeeplyengaged

bythesekindsofevents.Theymarchedbythethousandsoverthedivestment

campaignagainstSouthAfrica,AmericansupportforthecontrasinNicaragua,

andthenuclearfreeze.Butitallemanatedfromthatcentralphilosophical-

politicalcontestofideasbetweencommunismandcapitalism,Leninismand

democracy.

Weliveinaverydifferentagetoday,oneinwhichtherearefewergrand

ideologicaldebateswithgreatconsequences.Itisinconceivablethatanything

likeTheDayAfterwouldbemade,letalonetriggermuchdiscussion.Islamic

terrorismisasecuritythreatanddidprovokesomedebateafter9/11,butithas

limitedpotencyandcertainlyhasnochanceofseducinganon-Muslimcountry.

EveninMuslimcountries,jihadistshavetoresorttoterrorpreciselybecause

theycanconvinceonlyasmallbandofextremistsofthestrengthoftheirideas.

Theyposeathreatbutnotanideologicalthreat.Wehavenoisypartisanshipin

Washington,butoverfairlyroutinepoliticaldifferences.Onissues,bothparties

areactuallymuchcloserthantheywerethirtyorfortyyearsago.Asaresult,our

youtharenotveryideological.Theycombineamixofimpulses—capitalist,

sociallyliberal,supportiveofsocialwelfare,butuncomfortablewith

bureaucracyandregulation.Itdoesn’tquiteadduptoapassionatepolitical

philosophy.Andcertainly,itdoesn’ttakethemtothebarricades.

Ourageisdefinedbycapitalism,globalization,andtechnology.Thetrends

changinglifecomefromthoseforces—poweringanewinformationrevolution

thatcreatesnewindustriesovernight,pushingthefrontiersofcomputerlearning,

changingmedicineinfundamentalways,allowingbillionstoriseinChinaand

India,andalteringthestructuresofeconomic,political,andsocialpower

everywhere.Theiconsoftheageareentrepreneurs,technologists,and

businesspeople.MarkZuckerbergandJeffBezosarefarmoreimportant

symbolsthananypoliticiantoday,andtheyoccupythespacethaticonicpolitical

figuresdidinearliereras.Theyoungreflecttoday’srealities.Theirlivesare

moreinvolvedwiththeseeconomicandtechnologicalforcesthanwithideology

andgeopolitics.Andthatmeansthereislessscopeforgrandtheorizing,fewer

intenselate-nightbullsessions,lessstirringeloquenceatthestudentforumsand

politicalunions.It’sanewworld,andtheyoungknowit.

Butisthissobad?Aretheissuesthatstudentstodaythinkaboutless

importantthanthoseofwarandpeace?Aretheirheroesinferiortothoseofpast

ages?Thegeekycultureofthetechnologyeraislessconspicuouslyinterestedin

ideasthanColdWarsocietywas,withitsgreatstatesmenandphilosophers.But

isitanyworse?ConsiderBillGates,perhapstoooldnowtobesexybut

certainlytheiconicfigureofthisage.Atechnologyentrepreneurand

businessman,Gateswasoneofthefirstlarger-than-lifeprivatefiguresin

contemporaryAmerica.Heisinformal,brainy,meritoriented,andseemingly

uninterestedinshowingoffhiswealth.Onthewhole,thesearegreatvaluesto

transmit.Gatesisalsodeeplyinterestedinideasthatrangefromscienceto

economicstoeducation.Hisspeechesandblogpostsarefilledwithdiscussions

ofbooks,includingarguments,analyses,anddataaboutthem.Hiskindof

wonkerymaynotlooklikeagrandexerciseinphilosophy,butheisactively

engagedwithimportantideasthatcouldchangetheworld.

Moreimportant,hismainhandiworknow,theBill&MelindaGates

Foundation,seesitscentralmissionassavingthelargestnumberofhumanlives

itcan,nomatterwheretheylive,whatcolortheirskinis,orwhatpassportthey

carry.Inotherwords,itisbuiltonanidea,thatallhumanlifeisofequalvalue,

somethingonlyafewcharitiesbelieveinoracton.Thismightoncehavebeen

consideredaChristianidea—thatweareallequalinGod’seyes—butGateshas

translateditintoasecularone,andheisgivingawaytheworld’slargestfortune

inserviceofit.HisfriendWarrenBuffett,thesecond-richestmaninAmerica,is

givingawaymostofhiswealthtothesamecause—withoutaskingforany

credit,noteventohavehisnameputonthefoundation’sdoor.(Thatissurelyan

actthatbearssomesimilaritytoMarshall’smodesty.)

Inhiswritingsandtalks,DavidBrooksemphasizeshisconcernthatthe

younglackalanguageaboutvirtuetoday.Theyare,hebelieves,“morally

inarticulate.”Andit’struethatwedon’tusewordslikehonorable,noble,and

virtuousmuchthesedays,butsurelythatishowGates’sandBuffett’sactions

shouldbedescribed.Theyareexamplesofpeoplewhohavebeenmovedtotake

large,importantactionsoutofdeepconvictions,ideas,andvalues—outofa

philosophyoflifeandacommitmenttothoseideas.Theirmodelissurelyas

inspiringasanystatesmanorgeneralofthepastwhospokeinloftytonesabout

goodandevil,honorandsacrifice.

NoteveryonecandowhatGatesandBuffettaredoing.Collegestudents

todaysearchformoralityandthemeaningoflifeindifferentwaysthaninprior

ages,aswithanynewgeneration,especiallyintimesoftremendouschange.

Theyaremoreincrementalandpractical.Theyseektruth,butperhapsthrough

quieteravenuesthantheheroiconesofthepast.Theytrytocombinetheirgreat

urgeswithagoodlife.

TheHERIsurveydatashowthattheobjectivemostimportanttostudents,

besidesmakingmoney,israisingafamily.Thatnumberhasbeenremarkably

stableovertheyears,risingsomewhat,andisnowaround75percent.It’sa

bourgeoisconcern.Butistherereallysomethingsoullessabouttryingtomakea

living,createahome,andraiseafamily?Oneofthehigherachievementsofthe

liberaldemocraticprojectissurelythatpeopletodaycanspendlesstime

worryingaboutrevolutionandwarandfocusinsteadonbuildingaprivate

spherewithinwhichtheycanfindmeaning,fulfillment,andhappiness.I

rememberreadingonceaboutajudgeinSouthAfricawhospoketoAmerican

collegestudents.Shecontrastedthehigh-stakespoliticsinhercountry—the

breakdownofapartheid,thebirthofanewcountry—withthetriviasheread

aboutinAmericannewspapers.Andsheconcludedbyferventlyhopingthatone

dayhercountrywouldbenormalenoughtohaveitspapersfilledwithtrivia.

Thereareplentyofchallengesabroadandathome,injusticeandimbalances

thatneedtobecorrectedandreformed.Buttherearealsothosetimesandplaces

wherepeopleareluckyenoughthatprivatevirtuesmightbecultivated.AsJohn

AdamsfamouslywroteduringtheAmericanRevolution,“Imuststudypolitics

andwar,thatoursonsmayhavelibertytostudymathematicsandphilosophy.

Oursonsoughttostudymathematicsandphilosophy,geography,naturalhistory

andnavalarchitecture,navigation,commerceandagricultureinordertogive

theirchildrenarighttostudypainting,poetry,music,architecture,statuary,

tapestryandporcelain.”Somaybetodaythey’rewritingappsratherthan

studyingpoetry,butthat’sanadjustmentfortheage.

Thesearenotthesortsofambitionsthathavepeoplerallyingtotheramparts

anddeclaiminginpurpleprose,buttheyarestillrealandauthenticand

important.Andtheyareworthabriefdefense,whichiswhatIhaveattempted

here.ThismuchIwillconcede:Becauseofthetimeswelivein,allofus,young

andold,donotspendenoughtimeandeffortthinkingaboutthemeaningoflife.

Wedonotlookinsideofourselvesenoughtounderstandourstrengthsand

weaknesses,andwedonotlookaroundenough—attheworld,inhistory—toask

thedeepestandbroadestquestions.Thesolutionsurelyisthat,evennow,we

couldallusealittlebitmoreofaliberaleducation.

Notes
Liberaleducationisatopiconwhichmanyexcellentbookshavebeenwritten.I
haveusedafewfootnotesinthetexttohighlightparticularworksonwhichI
reliedforsomehistoricalbackground.Therestofmysourcesareacknowledged
intheseendnotes.
1:ComingtoAmerica
16Ascollegeenrollmenthasgrown:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducation
Statistics,DigestofEducationStatistics2013,Table322.10.TheDigest,publishedannuallybythe
NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,isahighlyaccessiblesourceforstatisticsonhighereducation.
Thedataareupdatedthroughouttheyearonlineathttp://nces.ed.gov/programs/digest/.
16inearlierperiodsofeducationalexpansion:Formoreonthepost–WorldWarIIexpansioninhigher
educationandthesimultaneousriseinthehumanities,seeLouisMenand,“TheHumanities
Revolution,”inTheMarketplaceofIdeas:ReformandResistanceintheAmericanUniversity(New
York:W.W.Norton,2010),63–73;andWilliamM.Chace,“TheDeclineoftheEnglishDepartment,”
AmericanScholar,Autumn2009.TheHumanitiesIndicators,aprojectoftheAmericanAcademyof
ArtsandSciencesavailableonlineatwww.humanitiesindicators.org,alsotracksdataonthetwentieth-
centuryriseandfallinthestudyofthehumanities.
17“Ihavetospeak”:PhilipRoth,Portnoy’sComplaint(NewYork:VintageBooks,1994),164.
17Herearethedata:NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,Digest,Table311.60.
18Anotherestimate:Measuresoftheliberalartsvarybysource,dependinglargelyonhowacademic
fieldsareclassified.JustinPope,“LiberalArtsCollegesForcedtoEvolvewithMarket,”Associated
Press,Dec.30,2012,estimatesthatbetween100,000and300,000ofthecountry’sapproximately17
millionundergraduatesattendaliberalartscollege,thatis,aresidentialcollegethatexistsindependent
ofanylargeruniversity.Thesamearticleestimatesthataboutone-thirdofbachelor’sdegreesinthe
UnitedStatesareawardedintheliberalarts.
TheDigestplacestheundergraduatepopulationat18millionasof2012(Table303.60).Italso
dividesdegreesintosixbroadcategories:humanities;socialandbehavioralsciences;naturalsciences
andmathematics;computersciencesandengineering;education;business;andotherfields,acategory
thatincludesprofessionalprogramssuchasagricultureandlawenforcement.Ifjustthefirstthreeare
classifiedasliberal,thenabout40percentofthe1.8millionbachelor’sdegreesconferredin2011–12
wereintheliberalarts(Table318.20).
19governors:SeeScottJaschik,“FloridaGOPvs.SocialScience,”InsideHigherEd,Oct.12,2011

(Scottquote);KevinKiley,“A$10,000Platform,”InsideHigherEd,Nov.30,2012;andKiley,
“AnotherLiberalArtsCritic,”InsideHigherEd,Jan.30,2013(Bennettquote).
19Itisn’tonlyRepublicans:ScottJaschik,“ApologyfromObama,”InsideHigherEd,Feb.19,2014.
20theircomprehensivestudyofeducation:ClaudiaGoldinandLawrenceKatz,TheRacebetween
EducationandTechnology(Cambridge:HarvardUniversityPress,2010),28–29.
21Todayahighschoolstudent:Ibid.,254.
22JawaharlalNehru:OnNehru’seconomicviews,seeShashiTharoor,Nehru:TheInventionofIndia
(NewYork:Arcade,2003),159–193;andJawaharlalNehru,“TemplesoftheNewAge,”July8,1954,
availableathttp://www.nehruinternationalconference2014.com/nehru_speech4.aspx.
30“TheOtherAmerica”:FatmaZakaria,“TheOtherAmerica,”TimesofIndia,Mar.28,1982.
2:ABriefHistoryofLiberalEducation
40Priortothechange:BruceKimball,OratorsandPhilosophers:AHistoryoftheIdeaofLiberal
Education(NewYork:TeachersCollegePress,1986),16–17.Kimball’sbookisadetailed,scholarly
historyofliberaleducationfromantiquitythroughthemodernera.AlsoseeWernerJaeger’sseminal
workonthedevelopmentofcultureandeducationinancientGreece:Paideia:TheIdealsofGreek
Culture,trans.GilbertHighet,3vols.(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1939–1944).
41“Ourconstitution”:Thucydides,HistoryofthePeloponnesianWar,trans.RexWarner(NewYork:
Penguin,1954),2.37.
42“Learningwillspoil”:FrederickDouglass,TheLifeandTimesofFrederickDouglass(1881),in
Autobiographies(NewYork:LibraryofAmerica,1994),527.AlsoquotedinMichaelRoth,Beyond
theUniversity:WhyLiberalEducationMatters(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2014),42.
42intellectualdisagreement:ThisistheargumentKimballmakesinhisbook—thatliberaleducation
representstwotraditions,thatoftheoratorsandthatofthephilosophers.
42firstgreatdivide:SeeWernerJaeger,“TheRhetoricofIsocratesandItsCulturalIdeal,”inPaideia,
vol.3:46–70.
43oneoftheearliestwriters:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,13.
43“Foritisfromknowledge”:Cicero,OntheOrator,Books1–2,trans.E.W.SuttonandH.Rackham
(LoebClassicalLibraryNo.348)(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1942),1.20.
44“finallyanddefinitivelyformalized”:PaulAbelson,TheSevenLiberalArts:AStudyinMedieval
Culture(NewYork:Russell&Russell,1965),2.
44Charlemagnethenestablished:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,51–52.
45WhydidEuropeanlearning:FormoreontheIslamicinfluence,seeTobyE.Huff,TheRiseofEarly
ModernScience:Islam,China,andtheWest,2nded.(Cambridge,UK:CambridgeUniversityPress,
2003),47–89,149–179.AlsoseeMichaelH.Shank,TheScientificEnterpriseinAntiquityandthe
MiddleAges(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,1996),215–231.
46“nations”:Entryfor“nation,”inEncyclopediaBritannica,EncyclopediaBritannicaOnlineAcademic
Edition(EncyclopediaBritannica,2014).
46By1300,westernEuropewashome:Kimball,OratorsandPhilosophers,75.
47“revivalofartsandofletters”:PaulOskarKristeller,“Humanism,”Minerva16,no.4(Winter1978):
586.
47“collegeasweknowit”:AndrewDelbanco,College:WhatItWas,Is,andShouldBe(Princeton,NJ:
PrincetonUniversityPress,2012),36–37.Also,forasmartcollectionofthoughtsoneducation,
writteninthe1950sbutsurprisinglycurrent,seeA.WhitneyGriswold,LiberalEducationandthe
DemocraticIdeal:AndOtherEssays(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1962).Foramorea
discursivebutwidesetofreflections,seeMichaelOakeshott,TheVoiceofLiberalLearning(New

Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1990).
48publiclecture:Delbanco,College,61–62.
48moresecular:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege:ANewCommunityofLearning,aReport
SubmittedbytheInauguralCurriculumCommitteeofYale-NUSCollege(NewHaven,CT,April
2013),12–13,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Yale-NUS-
College-Curriculum-Report.pdf.
49“laterallearning”:SeeDelbanco,College,53–56.
49“Booklearningalone”:SamuelEliotMorison,FoundingofHarvardCollege(Cambridge,MA:
HarvardUniversityPress,1935),252,quotedinDelbanco,College,41–42.
50Manyofthefounders:Delbanco,College,39.
50“Thesubject-matterofknowledge”:JohnHenryNewman,quotedinDelbanco,College,41.
51Aftermuchdeliberation:CommitteeoftheCorporationandtheAcademicalFaculty,Reportsonthe
CourseofInstructioninYaleCollege(NewHaven,CT,1828).
51Yalereportexplained:Ibid.,14.
51“Thetwogreatpoints”:Ibid.,7.
52CharlesEliot:PhiloA.Hutcheson,“Eliot,CharlesWilliam,”inAmericanNationalBiographyOnline
(OxfordUniversityPress,Feb.2000),availableathttp://www.anb.org/articles/09/09–00250.html.
53likemanyothercolleges:ForafullaccountofthistransitionperiodinAmericanhighereducation,see
LaurenceR.Veysey,TheEmergenceoftheAmericanUniversity(Chicago:UniversityofChicago
Press,1965).
53two-partessay:CharlesW.Eliot,“TheNewEducation,”AtlanticMonthly,Feb.–Mar.1869,thefirst
partavailableathttp://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/1869/02/the-new-education/309049/.
54“spontaneousdiversityofchoice”:“CharlesWilliamEliot,”HarvardUniversity,availableat
http://www.harvard.edu/history/presidents/eliot(accessedAug.21,2014).
55“Trustthyself”:RalphWaldoEmerson,“Self-Reliance,”inEssays:FirstSeries(1841).
551885speech:CharlesW.Eliot,“LibertyinEducation”(speechbeforetheNineteenthCenturyClubof
NewYork,1885),inEducationalReform:EssaysandAddresses(NewYork:Century,1898),132–133,
availableathttps://archive.org/details/educationalrefor00elioiala.
56Eliot’sviewswerenotshared:FormoreonthedifferingviewsofEliotandMcCosh,seeDelbanco,
College,82–90.
57Againstthatbackdrop:LouisMenand,TheMarketplaceofIdeas:ReformandResistanceinthe
AmericanUniversity(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2010),35.Lessahistory,thisbookpresentsan
importantdiscussionoftheissuesthatmodernuniversitiesface.
57In1930:SeeMaryAnnDzurback,“Hutchins,Adler,andtheUniversityofChicago:ACritical
Juncture,”AmericanJournalofEducation99,no.1(1990):64–65;andStringfellowBarr,“A
RetrospectiveonSt.John’s,”Change6(1974):35,63.
58Today,about150schools:Alistofcollegeprogramsthatusegreatbooks,compiledbyWilliam
Casement,canbefoundatthefollowingAssociationforCoreTextsandCourses(ACTC)website:
http://www.coretexts.org/college-great-books-programs/(accessedSept.15,2014).
581952essay:RobertM.Hutchins,“TheGreatConversation”(1952),inTheGreatConversation:A
Reader’sGuidetoGreatBooksoftheWesternWorld,2nded.(Chicago:EncyclopaediaBritannica,
1990),46–73.
59MarthaNussbaum:MarthaC.Nussbaum,CultivatingHumanity:AClassicalDefenseofReformin
LiberalEducation(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1997),33–34.
60“OncetheyhavegonethroughtheCore”:Delbanco,College,30.
63Gradeshaverisensteadily:StuartRojstaczerandChristopherHealy,“WhereAIsOrdinary:The
EvolutionofAmericanCollegeandUniversityGrading,1940–2009,”TeachersCollegeRecord114,
no.7(2012):1–23.
64portionofallgrades:BrittneyL.Moraski,“Report:GradeInflationPersists,”HarvardCrimson,May
9,2007;MatthewQ.ClaridaandNicholasP.Fandos,“SubstantiatingFearsofGradeInflation,Dean

SaysMedianGradeatHarvardCollegeisA–,MostCommonGradeisA,”HarvardCrimson,Dec.4,
2013.
65“amaterialuniverse”:AnthonyKronman,Education’sEnd:WhyOurUniversitiesandCollegesHave
GivenUpontheMeaningofLife(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2007),66.
65“TheTwoCultures”:C.P.Snow,TheTwoCulturesandtheScientificRevolution(NewYork:
CambridgeUniversityPress,1961).
65“mutualincomprehension”:Ibid.,15–16.
66“Agoodmanytimes”:Ibid.,16.
66In2003,LawrenceSummers:LawrenceH.Summers,“RemarksofPresidentLawrenceH.Summers
attheMassachusettsLifeSciencesSummit”(speechattheMassachusettsLifeSciencesSummit,
Boston,MA,Sept.12,2003),availableat
http://www.harvard.edu/president/speeches/summers_2003/lifesci.php.
66FormerPrincetonpresidentShirleyTilghman:ShirleyM.Tilghman,“TheFutureofScience
EducationintheLiberalArtsCollege”(speechatPresidentsInstitute,CouncilofIndependent
Colleges,MarcoIsland,FL,Jan.5,2010),availableat
http://www.princeton.edu/president/tilghman/speeches/20100105/.
67In2011,YaleUniversity:Yale-NUSCollege,“Yale-NUSCollegeWelcomesInauguralClass
Exceeding150Students,”June6,2013,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/newsroom/yale-nus-
college-welcomes-inaugural-class-exceeding-150-students/.
68InApril2013,acommitteeofthisnewenterprise:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege.Sincethe
planningstagesofYale-NUSin2010,someYaleprofessorsandlecturershaveraisedconcernsabouta
lackofcivillibertiesinSingapore.See,e.g.,JimSleeper,“LiberalEducationinAuthoritarianPlaces,”
NewYorkTimes,Aug.31,2013.
69greatestinnovation:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege,45–47.
71In1852,CardinalNewmanwrote:JohnHenryNewman,“KnowledgeItsOwnEnd,”inTheIdeaofa
University(London:Longmans,Green,1907),101–102,availableat
http://newmanreader.org/works/idea/discourse5.html.
71“Whatistheearthlyuse”:A.BartlettGiamatti,“TheEarthlyUseofaLiberalEducation,”inAFree
andOrderedSpace:TheRealWorldoftheUniversity(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1990),118–126.
3:LearningtoThink
74Bezosinsists:AdamLashinsky,“Amazon’sJeffBezos:TheUltimateDisrupter,”Fortune,Nov.16,
2012.AlsoseeBradStone,TheEverythingStore:JeffBezosandtheDigitalAge(NewYork:Little,
Brown,2013).
74“Fullsentencesareharder”:Lashinsky,“Amazon’sJeffBezos.”
74“thefirmIled”:NormanAugustine,“OneCannotLivebyEquationsAlone:EducationforLifeand
WorkintheTwenty-FirstCentury,”LiberalEducation99,no.2(Spring2013).
75“articulatecommunication”:Yale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege:ANewCommunityofLearning,a
ReportSubmittedbytheInauguralCurriculumCommitteeofYale-NUSCollege(NewHaven,CT,
April2013),25–29,availableathttp://www.yale-nus.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/2013/09/Yale-NUS-
College-Curriculum-Report.pdf.
77“Conversation”:A.WhitneyGriswold,“OnConversation,”inLiberalEducationandtheDemocratic
Ideal:AndOtherEssays(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,1962),68–69.
77“outsideofthebook-knowledge”:AlfredNorthWhiteheadquotedinibid.
79“thatwillhelpthemgetready”:DrewFaustquotedinLibbyA.Nelson,“GainfulEmployment
NegotiationsWrapUp—DOJDropsVoucherSuit—HarvardPresidentTalksQuality,Value,”Politico,

Nov.20,2013.
79HowardGardner:HowardGardner,TheDisciplinedMind:BeyondFactsandStandardizedTests,the
K–12EducationThatEveryChildDeserves(NewYork:Penguin,2000).
79“Thereisajoke”:Ibid.,102–103.
79ThomasCech:ThomasR.Cech,“ScienceatLiberalArtsColleges:ABetterEducation?”Daedalus
128,no.1(Winter1999):209–210.PartsofCech’sarticlearealsoquotedinShirleyM.Tilghman,
“TheFutureofScienceEducationintheLiberalArtsCollege”(speechatPresidentsInstitute,Council
ofIndependentColleges,MarcoIsland,FL,Jan.5,2010).
80Gardnerargues:Gardner,DisciplinedMind,126.
80pointofeducation:SeethecomparisonGardnerdrawsbetweenhisviewsoneducationandthoseofE.
D.Hirsch,aneducatorandproponentof“culturalliteracy,”inDisciplinedMind,252–260.
81“itbordersonmalpractice”:Ibid.,260.
82“itisinApple’sDNA”:SteveJobsquotedinTimCarmody,“WithoutJobsasCEO,WhoSpeaksfor
theArtsatApple?”Wired,Aug.29,2011.
82HestudiedancientGreek:OnZuckerberg’sinterestintheclassics,seeJoseAntonioVargas,“The
FaceofFacebook,”NewYorker,Sept.20,2010.
83“asmuchpsychology”:MarkZuckerbergquotedinChaseLarson,“MarkZuckerbergSpeaksatBYU,
CallsFacebook‘asmuchpsychologyandsociologyasitistechnology,’”DeseretNews,Mar.25,
2011.
83“KnowledgeEconomyasweknowit”:BruceNussbaum,“GetCreative!”BloombergBusinessweek,
July31,2005.
84“humantasks”:DavidH.Autor,“Polanyi’sParadoxandtheShapeofEmploymentGrowth”(paper
draftdatedAug.11,2014,preparedfortheFederalReserveBankofKansasCitysymposiumat
JacksonHole,WY,Aug.21–23,2014),availableat
http://www.kc.frb.org/publicat/sympos/2014/093014.pdf.AlsoseeFareedZakaria,“HowtoRestore
theAmericanDream,”Time,Oct.21,2010.
85FastCompanyarticle:AnyaKamenetz,“WhyEducationwithoutCreativityIsn’tEnough,”Fast
Company,Sept.14,2011.
85VinodKhosla:VinodKhosla(co-founder,SunMicrosystems),indiscussionwiththeauthor,Sept.9,
2014.
862012industryreport:MichaelMasnickandMichaelHo,TheSkyIsRising:ADetailedLookatthe
StateoftheEntertainmentIndustry(Floor64,RedwoodCity,CA,Jan.2012),availableat
https://www.techdirt.com/skyisrising/.
87experienceofDr.IrwinBraverman:SeeChristineDiGrazia,“Yale’sLife-or-DeathCourseinArt
Criticism,”NewYorkTimes,May19,2002;andHollyFinn,“HowtoEndtheAgeofInattention,”Wall
StreetJournal,June1,2012.
88In2013,theAmericanAssociationofCollegesandUniversities:ItTakesMoreThanaMajor:
EmployerPrioritiesforCollegeLearningandStudentSuccess(Washington,DC:Associationof
AmericanCollegesandUniversitiesandHartResearchAssociates,2013).Thedefinitionofliberal
educationreadtosurveyparticipantswasasfollows:“Thisapproachtoacollegeeducationprovides
bothbroadknowledgeinavarietyofareasofstudyandknowledgeinaspecificmajororfieldof
interest.Italsohelpsstudentsdevelopasenseofsocialresponsibility,aswellasintellectualand
practicalskillsthatspanallareasofstudy,suchascommunication,analytical,andproblem-solving
skills,andademonstratedabilitytoapplyknowledgeandskillsinreal-worldsettings.”
88onerecentstudy:JoanBurrelli,AlanRapoport,andRolfLehming,“BaccalaureateOriginsofS&E
DoctorateRecipients”(InfoBrief,NSF08–311,NationalScienceFoundation,DivisionofResources
Statistics,Arlington,VA,July2008),availableathttp://www.nsf.gov/statistics/infbrief/nsf08311/.Also
seeThomasR.Cech,“ScienceatLiberalArtsColleges:ABetterEducation?”Daedalus128,no.1
(Winter1999):195–216.
89“Sowhatdoesbusinessneed”:Augustine,“OneCannotLivebyEquationsAlone.”
90“Getaliberalartsdegree”:EdgarM.Bronfman,“BusinessandtheLiberalArts,”InsideHigherEd,

Oct.17,2013.
91first-eversurveyoftheskills:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,OECD
SkillsOutlook2013:FirstResultsfromtheSurveyofAdultSkills(OECDPublishing,2013).
91mostrecenteditionofthetest:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,PISA2012
Results:WhatStudentsKnownandCanDo—StudentPerformanceinMathematics,Readingand
Science(VolumeI,Revisededition,February2014)(OECDPublishing,2014).
91UnitedStateshasneverperformedespeciallywell:SeeElliottA.MedrichandJeanneE.Griffith,
InternationalMathematicsandScienceAssessment:WhatHaveWeLearned?(Washington,DC:U.S.
DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducationStatistics,Feb.1992),availableat
http://nces.ed.gov/pubs92/92011.pdf.
92Onaverage:DianeRavitch,ReignofError:TheHoaxofthePrivatizationMovementandtheDanger
toAmerica’sPublicSchools(NewYork:Knopf,2013),65.Ravitchmakesthesamepointabout
historicallypoorAmericanperformanceoninternationalassessments,butsheusesitasevidencethat
theU.S.educationsystemdoesnotrequirethekindofreformsnowproposedbymany,includingthe
GeorgeW.BushandObamaadministrations.Iwouldtendtodisagreewiththatconclusion.
92mostrecentassessmentintheseries:U.S.DepartmentofEducation,NationalCenterforEducation
Statistics,TrendsinInternationalMathematicsandScience(TIMSS),availableat
http://nces.ed.gov/timss/(accessedAug.13,2014).
92UnitedStatesspendsmorepercapita:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,
EducationataGlance2014:OECDIndicators(OECDPublishing,2014),204.
93“Webothhavemeritocracies”:TharmanShanmugaratnamquotedinFareedZakaria,“WeAllHavea
LottoLearn,”Newsweek,Jan.8,2006.ThisquotealsoappearedinmybookThePost-American
World(NewYork:W.W.Norton,2008).
93It’snotjustSingapore:FormoreonthegrowinginterestintheliberalartsinAsia,includingthe
examplesinthisparagraph,seeYale-NUSCollege,Yale-NUSCollege,14–22.
95Israelactuallyranksfirst:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,
EntrepreneurshipataGlance(OECDPublishing,2014),91.Alsoseetheextremelyinterestingbook
byDanSenorandSaulSinger,Start-upNation:TheStoryofIsrael’sEconomicMiracle(NewYork:
Twelve,2009).
952014Bloombergmeasureoftechnologydensity:“MostInnovativeintheWorld2014:Economies,”
Bloomberg,athttp://www.bloomberg.com/visual-data/best-and-worst/most-innovative-in-the-world-
2014-economies(accessedJuly28,2014).
95SwedenandIsraelperformed:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationandDevelopment,PISA2012
Results.
96PISAtestsdon’tsimplyevaluatestudents’skills:OrganisationforEconomicCo-operationand
Development,PISA2012Results:ReadytoLearn:Students’Engagement,DriveandSelf-Beliefs
(VolumeIII)(OECDPublishing,2013).PISAmeasuredmathematicsself-conceptbyaskingstudents
whethertheyagreedordisagreedwithfivestatements,including“Ilearnmathematicsquickly”and“I
amjustnotgoodatmathematics.”TableIII.4.2a(p.304)providesacountry-by-countrybreakdownof
thepercentageofstudentsindicatingself-conceptforeachofthefivequestions.Theoverallranking
herewascalculatedbyaveragingthefiveseparaterankingsofcountriesbypercentage.
96“Thiscountry”:WilliamBennett,TheDe-ValuingofAmerica:TheFightforOurCultureandOur
Children(NewYork:SummitBooks,1992),42–43.
97theirbookTheTriplePackage:AmyChuaandJedRubenfeld,TheTriplePackage:HowThree
UnlikelyTraitsExplaintheRiseandFallofCulturalGroupsinAmerica(NewYork:Penguin,2014).
97Someexpertsseenocorrelation:See,e.g.,KeithBaker,“AreInternationalTestsWorthAnything?”
PhiDeltaKappan89,no.2(Oct.2007):101–104.
97whileotherspointtodata:See,e.g.,EricA.HanushekandLudgerWoessmann,TheHighCostofLow
EducationalPerformance:TheLong-RunImpactofImprovingPISAOutcomes(OECDPublishing,
2010).

98Scholars:HeinerRindermannandJamesThompson,“CognitiveCapitalism:TheEffectofCognitive
AbilityonWealth,asMediatedthroughScientificAchievementandEconomicFreedom,”
PsychologicalScience22,no.6(June2011):754–763.
98America’stop1percentintellectually:JonathanWai,“OfBrainiacsandBillionaires,”Psychology
Today,July3,2012.
99“Overalongperiodoftime”:ThomasPiketty,CapitalintheTwenty-FirstCentury(Cambridge,MA:
BelknapPress,2014),22.
100Onaverage,studentsinShanghai:BillChappell,“U.S.StudentsSlideinGlobalRankingonMath,
Reading,Science,”NationalPublicRadio,Dec.3,2013,availableat
http://www.npr.org/blogs/thetwoway/2013/12/03/248329823/u-s-high-school-students-slide-in-math-
reading-science.
100U.S.SecretaryofEducationArneDuncan:HouseEducationandLaborCommittee,TheObama
Administration’sEducationAgenda:HearingbeforetheCommitteeonEducationandLabor,111th
Cong.(May20,2009)(statementofArneDuncan,SecretaryofEducationoftheUnitedStates),24,
alsoavailableathttp://votesmart.org/public-statement/427845/hearing-of-house-education-and-labor-
committee-the-obama-administrations-education-agenda#.VCQ5UWRdVy8.
100IfMalcolmGladwellisright:MalcolmGladwell,Outliers:TheStoryofSuccess(NewYork:Little,
Brown,2008).
101JackMa:C.Custer,“JackMaExplainsWhyChina’sEducationSystemFailstoProduceInnovators,”
TechinAsia,Dec.9,2014,availableathttps://www.techinasia.com/jack-ma-explains-chinas-
education-system-fails-produce-innovators/.
101academicyearismuchshorter:Thishasbeenthecasefordecades.ANationatRisk:TheImperative
forEducationalReform(Washington,DC:NationalCommissiononExcellenceinEducation,1983)—
aninfluentialreportonthestateofAmericaneducationreleasedunderPresidentRonaldReagan—
recommendedthatschooldistrictsandstatelegislatures“stronglyconsider”increasingthelengthof
theschoolyeartobetween200and220days,inlinewithmanyotherindustrializednations.Thereis
somedispute,however,overhowtheAmericanschoolyearcompareswithschoolyearsinother
countries.See,e.g.,JimHullandMandyNewport,“TimeinSchool:HowDoestheU.S.Compare?”
CenterforPublicEducation,Dec.2011,availableathttp://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-
Menu/Organizing-a-school/Time-in-school-How-does-the-US-compare.
1022010researchpaper:PhilipS.BabcockandMindyMarks,“TheFallingTimeCostofCollege:
EvidencefromHalfaCenturyofTimeUseData”(NationalBureauofEconomicResearchWorking
PaperNo.15954,Apr.2010),availableathttp://www.nber.org/papers/w15954.
102importantnewstudy:RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningon
CollegeCampuses(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010).
102“Largenumbersoffour-yearcollegestudents”:“FrequentlyAskedQuestionsaboutAcademically
Adrift,”LearninginHigherEd,SocialScienceResearchCouncil,at
http://highered.ssrc.org/publications/academically-adrift/frequently-asked-questions/(accessedSept.1,
2014).
103MalcolmGladwell:MalcolmGladwell,interviewbyFareedZakaria,FareedZakariaGPS,CNN,July
21,2013.
105Inlate1980s,atthepeakofthebelief:JamesFallows,MoreLikeUs:MakingAmericaGreatAgain
(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,1989).
4:TheNaturalAristocracy
107“ourfoundingYuppie”:DavidBrooks,“OurFoundingYuppie,”WeeklyStandard,Oct.23,2000.

107“wouldhavefeltrightathome”:WalterIsaacson,BenjaminFranklin:AnAmericanLife(NewYork:
Simon&Schuster,2003),3.
107In1749,hepublishedapamphlet:BenjaminFranklin,ProposalsRelatingtotheEducationofYouthin
Pennsylvania(Philadelphia,1749),inThePapersofBenjaminFranklin,AmericanPhilosophical
SocietyandYaleUniversity,athttp://franklinpapers.org/franklin//(accessedSept.17,2014).Formore
onFranklin’sideasabouteducation,seeLorraineSmithPangleandThomasL.Pangle,TheLearning
ofLiberty:TheEducationalIdeasoftheAmericanFounders(Lawrence:UniversityPressofKansas,
1993),75–90.
109Franklinstruggled:Isaacson,BenjaminFranklin,147.Foramoredetailedlookatthisstruggle,seea
chapterinthelatehistorianJ.A.LeoLemay’scomprehensiveyetunfinishedbiographyTheLifeof
BenjaminFranklin,vol.3:Soldier,Scientist,andPolitician,1748–1757(Philadelphia:Universityof
PennsylvaniaPress,2008),176–216.
109Junto:Isaacson,BenjaminFranklin,55–60.
110“Hisworkonelectricity”:DudleyHerschbachquotedinibid.,129.
110In1778,Jeffersonpresented:CommitteeoftheVirginiaAssembly,“ABillfortheMoreGeneral
DiffusionofKnowledge,”June18,1779,inJeffersonPapers,FoundersOnline,NationalArchives,
http://founders.archives.gov/about/Jefferson.FormoreonJefferson’sideasabouteducation,seePangle
andPangle,LearningofLiberty,106–124.
111“Thiswouldcreate”:MichaelRoth,BeyondtheUniversity:WhyLiberalEducationMatters(New
Haven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2014),21–22.
111“sothoroughlythework”:JonMeacham,ThomasJefferson:TheArtofPower(NewYork:Random
House,2012),468.
112UniversityofVirginiawasunique:“Jefferson’sVisionoftheAcademicalVillage,”Universityof
Virginia,availableathttp://www.virginia.edu/academicalvillage/vision.html(accessedSept.24,2014).
112“naturalaristocracy”:ThomasJeffersonquotedinRoth,BeyondtheUniversity,25–26.
112“Thebestgeniuses”:ThomasJeffersonquotedinibid.
113“Thewholepeoplemusttake”:JohnAdamsquotedinibid.,25.FormoreonAdams’sviewabout
education,seePangleandPangle,LearningofLiberty,91–105.
114Whatwouldtheymakeofacountry:ThomasB.Edsall,“TheReproductionofPrivilege,”NewYork
Times,Mar.12,2012.
114“Theeducationsystem”:AnthonyCarnevalequotedinibid.
115Aslateasthe1970s,Berkeley’sannualtuition:LarryAbramson,“WhyIsCollegeSoExpensive?”All
ThingsConsidered,NationalPublicRadio,Oct.19,2011,availableat
http://www.npr.org/2011/10/19/141505658/why-is-college-so-expensive.
115Forthe2014–15academicyear:Berkeley’scostofattendancecanbefoundonlineat
http://admissions.berkeley.edu/costofattendance.
116“partypathway”:ElizabethA.ArmstrongandLauraT.Hamilton,PayingfortheParty:HowCollege
MaintainsInequality(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,2013).
117“Ihavetoturndown”:AdmissionsofficerquotedinFareedZakaria,“TheThin-EnvelopeCrisis,”
Time,Apr.15,2013.
117WilliamBowen:WilliamBowenandSarahLevin,ReclaimingtheGame:CollegeSportsand
EducationalValues(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2003).Theoriginalbookonthesame
subjectisJamesL.ShulmanandWilliamBowen,TheGameofLife:CollegeSportsandEducational
Values(Princeton,NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2001).ReclaimingtheGamehasmorecurrent
statisticsthatoverwhelminglyproveBowen’sthesis.
1172012essayintheAmericanConservative:RonUnz,“TheMythofAmericanMeritocracy,”American
Conservative,Dec.2012.
118incomparison:Ibid.
118TheChosen:JeromeKarabel,TheChosen:TheHiddenHistoryofAdmissionandExclusionat
Harvard,Yale,andPrinceton(Boston:HoughtonMifflin,2005).

119averagecollegetuition:MichelleJamriskoandIlanKolet,“CollegeTuitionCostsSoar:Chartofthe
Day,”Bloomberg,Aug.18,2014.
120Whyhasthecostofcollegerisensoquickly?:WilliamBaumolandWilliamBowenfirstintroduced
theircostdiseasetheoryinPerformingArts,TheEconomicDilemma:AStudyofProblemsCommonto
Theater,Opera,Music,andDance(NewYork:TwentiethCenturyFund,1966).
121“whileproductivitygains”:RobertH.Frank,“ThePrestigeChaseIsRaisingCollegeCosts,”New
YorkTimes,Mar.10,2012,quotedinWilliamBowen,HigherEducationintheDigitalAge(Princeton,
NJ:PrincetonUniversityPress,2013),4.
121Bowenpointsout:ForBowen’sstrongaccountofcostsandproductivityinhighereducation,first
deliveredasaTannerLectureonHumanValuesatStanfordUniversityin2012,seeHigherEducation
intheDigitalAge,1–27.
123AcademicallyAdrift:RichardArumandJosipaRoksa,AcademicallyAdrift:LimitedLearningon
CollegeCampuses(Chicago:UniversityofChicagoPress,2010).
124Byearly2014,thetwomainplatforms:FionaM.HollandsandDevayaniTirthali,“MOOCs:
ExpectationsandReality”(CenterforBenefit-CostStudiesofEducation,TeachersCollege,Columbia
University,May2014),57.
1262013survey:DougLedermanandScottJaschik,“SurveyofFacultyAttitudesonTechnology,”Inside
HigherEd,Aug.27,2013.
127Tworecentstudies:UniversityofPennsylvaniaGraduateSchoolofEducation,“PennGSEStudy
ShowsMOOCsHaveRelativelyFewActiveUsers,withOnlyaFewPersistingtoCourseEnd,”Dec.
5,2013,availableathttp://www.gse.upenn.edu/pressroom/press-releases/2013/12/penn-gse-study-
shows-moocs-have-relatively-few-active-users-only-few-persisti;andAndrewDeanHo,JustinReich,
SergiyO.Nesterko,DanielThomasSeaton,TommyMullaney,JimWaldo,andIsaacChuang,
“HarvardXandMITx:TheFirstYearofOpenOnlineCourses,Fall2012–Summer2013”(HarvardX
andMITxWorkingPaperNo.1,Jan.21,2014),2,availableat
http://papers.ssrn.com/s013/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2381263.
127mediausedtheselowcompletionrates:See,e.g.,TamarLewin,“AfterSetbacks,OnlineCoursesAre
Rethought,”NewYorkTimes,Dec.10,2013.
127Courserareports:RichardLevin(CEO,Coursera),indiscussionwiththeauthor,Aug.30,2014.
128In2012and2013,approximately43,000students:Hoetal.,“HarvardXandMITx,”2.
128RobertShiller:Levin,discussionwithauthor.
129MinervaProject:FormoreontheMinervaProject,seeGraemeWood,“TheFutureofCollege?”
Atlantic,Aug.13,2014.
130TheOneWorldSchoolhouse:SalmanKhan,TheOneWorldSchoolhouse:EducationReimagined
(NewYork:Twelve,2012).
132StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić:StamenkaUvalić-Trumbić,RemarksattheClosingSessionofthe
UNESCOGlobalForumonRankingsandAccountabilityinHigherEducation(Paris,France,May17,
2011),availableathttp://www.col.org/resources/speeches/2011presentation/Pages/2011–05–16.aspx.
132“Inevitably,thegreatestimpactofMOOCs”:Levin,discussionwithauthor.
132Already,72percent:Hoetal.,“HarvardXandMITx,”25.
133Thevastmajority:Ibid.;andGayleChristensen,AndrewSteinmetz,BrandonAlcorn,AmyBennett,
DeirdreWoods,andEzekielJ.Emanuel,“TheMOOCPhenomenon:WhoTakesMassiveOpenOnline
CoursesandWhy?”(workingpaper,UniversityofPennsylvania,Nov.6,2013),availableat
http://papers.ssrn.com/s013/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2350964.
133studypublishedinNovember2013:Christensenetal.,“MOOCPhenomenon,”11.The34,779survey
respondentswereallowedtochooseallreasonsforenrollingthatappliedamongfouroptions.The
resultswereasfollows:“Curiosity,justforfun”(50.05percent),“Gainspecificskillstodomyjob
better”(43.9percent),“Gainspecificskillstogetanewjob”(17.0percent),and“Gainknowledgeto
getmydegree”(13.2percent).

5:KnowledgeandPower
135Prometheusbroughtfire:IngriD’AulaireandEdgarD’Aulaire,D’Aulaires’BookofGreekMyths
(NewYork:DelacortePress,1992).
136Aeschylus’sversion:Aeschylus,PrometheusBound,ed.AlanWeissman,trans.GeorgeThomson
(NewYork:DoverThrift,1995).
136SodidAdamandEve:Genesis2–3,KingJamesVersion.
137“ignoranceisbliss”:ThomasGray,“OdeonaDistantProspectofEtonCollege”(1747),inThomas
GrayArchive,availableathttp://www.thomasgray.org/cgi-bin/display.cgi?text=odec#panel_poem
(accessedSept.15,2014).
138“drawntothepursuitofknowledge”:CiceroquotedinJohnHenryNewman,“KnowledgeItsOwn
End,”inTheIdeaofaUniversity(London:Longmans,Green,1907),104,availableat
http://newmanreader.org/works/idea/discourse5.html.
138“Otherspecies”:RichardDawkins,“ApeswithBigBrains:RichardDawkinsonWhatMakesUs
Human,”NewStatesman,Jan.6,2014.
139“asingularcreature”:JacobBronowski,TheAscentofMan(London:BBCBooks,2011),19.
140“Science”:BertrandRussellwroteoftenaboutscienceandphilosophy,mostextensivelyinReligion
andScience(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1997).Thequotesherecomefroma1959
interviewhedidwiththeBritishjournalistWoodrowWyatt,availableat
https://archive.org/details/BertrandRussellDiscussesPhilosophy.Theinterviewwaspartofaserieswith
Wyatt,laterpublishedinbookformasBertrandRussellSpeaksHisMind(1960).
141Aristotle’sexplanation:SeeAristotle,GenerationofAnimals,trans.A.L.Peck(LoebClassical
LibraryNo.366)(Cambridge,MA:HarvardUniversityPress,1942),4.1.766a.
141CharlesII:CharlesPanati,Panati’sExtraordinaryEndingsofPracticallyEverythingandEverybody
(NewYork:Harper&Row,1989),265–267;and“SourceAnalysis—DeathofCharlesIIBasedon
Scarburgh’sDescription,”GSCEBitesize,BBCNews,availableat
http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/history/shp/middleages/earlymodernsurgeryrev5.shtml
(accessedSept.15,2014).
142Lifeexpectancy:Forhistoricallifeexpectancy,seeS.RyanJohansson,“Medics,Monarchsand
Mortality,1600–1800:OriginsoftheKnowledge-DrivenHealthTransitioninEurope”(Discussion
PapersinEconomicandSocialHistory,No.85,UniversityofOxford,Oct.2010).Forcurrentlife
expectancy,seeWorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank,availableat
http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators.
142UnitedNationsestimated:UnitedNationsDevelopmentProgramme,HumanDevelopmentReport
1997(Oxford,UK:OxfordUniversityPress,1997),2.
142averageChinesepersontoday:WorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank.Chineselife
expectancyatbirthrosefrom45yearsin1962to75in2012.ChineseGDPpercapita(in2005U.S.
dollars)increasedfrom$88.24in1963to$3,583.38in2013.Themultipleof40dependsonwhether
youuseinflation-adjustedorcurrentdollars,aswellasmarket-exchangeorpurchasing-powerparity.
143In1960,nearlyoneinfivechildren:WorldDevelopmentIndicators,TheWorldBank.Theunder-five
mortalityrateper1,000livebirthsgloballydeclinedfrom182.7in1960to45.6in2013.
143Itisquitepossible:See,e.g.,JeffreyD.Sachs,“TheEndofPoverty,Soon,”NewYorkTimes,Sept.24,
2013.
143MattRidley:MattRidley,TheRationalOptimist:HowProsperityEvolves(NewYork:HarperCollins,
2011).
144“humanitarianrevolution”:StevenPinker,TheBetterAngelsofOurNature:WhyViolenceHas
Declined(NewYork:VikingBooks,2011),129–188.
144“rightsrevolutions”:Ibid.,378–481.
144Somehumanistsbalk:See,e.g.,DonaldKagan,“AveatqueYale,”NewCriterion,June2013.

146“thesubjectsofourstudythink”:HerbertSimonquotedinFareedZakaria,“BloodLustin
Academia,”NewRepublic,July27,1987,16–18.
148NicholasKristofhaspointed:NicholasKristof,“Don’tDismisstheHumanities,”NewYorkTimes,
Aug.13,2014.
6:InDefenseofToday’sYouth
150makealife:Thephrase“MakingaLiving,MakingaLife”comesfromawonderfulcommencement
addressdeliveredbyDanielRosein1986attheMassachusettsInstituteofTechnology’sCenterfor
RealEstateDevelopment.ItisnowincludedinabookofessaysbyRose:MakingaLiving,Makinga
Life(Essex,NY:HalfMoonPress,2014).
151“TheMeMeMeGeneration”:JoelStein,“Millennials:TheMeMeMeGeneration,”Time,May20,
2013.
151“Crewpracticeatdawn”:DavidBrooks,“TheOrganizationKid,”Atlantic,April2001.
152“Atthetopofthemeritocraticladder”:Ibid.
152In2014,theessayist:WilliamDeresiewicz,ExcellentSheep:TheMiseducationoftheAmericanElite
andtheWaytoaMeaningfulLife(NewYork:FreePress,2014).
153“entitledlittleshit[s]”:Ibid.,221.
153notionthatyoungpeople:SeeMeyerReinhold,“TheGenerationGapinAntiquity,”andBarry
Baldwin,“YoungandOldinImperialRome,”inStephenBerman,ed.,TheConflictofGenerationsin
AncientGreeceandRome(Amsterdam:JohnBenjamins,1976),15–54,221–234.
154ChristopherLasch:ChristopherLasch,TheCultureofNarcissism:AmericanLifeinanAgeof
DiminishingExpectations(NewYork:W.W.Norton,1979).
154his1987book:AllanBloom,TheClosingoftheAmericanMind:HowHigherEducationHasFailed
DemocracyandImpoverishedtheSoulsofToday’sStudents(NewYork:Simon&Schuster,1987).
154AnthonyKronman:SeeAnthonyKronman,Education’sEnd:WhyOurUniversitiesandColleges
HaveGivenUpontheMeaningofLife(NewHaven,CT:YaleUniversityPress,2007).
157ProfessorStevenPinker:SeeStevenPinker’sresponsetoDeresiewicz,in“TheTroublewithHarvard:
TheIvyLeagueIsBrokenandOnlyStandardizedTestsCanFixIt,”NewRepublic,Sept.4,2014.
157UCLA’sHigherEducationResearchInstitute:SeeTheAmericanFreshman:NationalNorms,aseries
ofannualreportspresentingdataoncollegefreshmen,publishedbytheHigherEducationResearch
InstituteattheUniversityofCalifornia,LosAngeles.Reportsdatingtothe1960sareavailableat
http://www.heri.ucla.edu/tfsPublications.php.
157Overthelastfourdecades:J.H.Pryor,S.Hurtado,V.B.Saenz,J.L.Santos,andW.S.Korn,The
AmericanFreshman:FortyYearTrends,1966–2006(LosAngeles:HigherEducationResearch
Institute,UCLA,April2007),31–34.
158numberswhovolunteer:SeethePeaceCorpspressrelease“ThePeaceCorpsAnnouncesRecord-
BreakingApplicationNumbersin2014,”Oct.8,2014;andtheCorporationforNationaland
CommunityServicepressrelease“AmeriCorpsWeekMarkedfromCoasttoCoast,”Mar.23,2012.
158TeachforAmerica:SeetheTeachforAmericapressrelease“TeachforAmericaAnnouncesRecord
NumberofTeachersfor2008,”May14,2008.Inapresskit,TeachforAmericareportsthatthe
organizationreceivedoverfiftythousandapplicationsforthe2014teachingcorps.
158coverstoryinTimemagazine:Stein,“Millennials.”
159“Theincidenceofnarcissisticpersonalitydisorder”:Ibid.
159ElspethReeve:ElspethReeve,“EveryEveryEveryGenerationHasBeentheMeMeMeGeneration,”
Wire,May9,2013,availableathttp://www.thewire.com/national/2013/05/me-generation-time/65054/.
159quotefromthe2010study:BrentW.Roberts,GrantEdmonds,andEmilyGrijalva,“ItIs

DevelopmentalMe,NotGenerationMe,”PerspectivesonPsychologicalScience5,no.1(Jan.2010):
97–102.
1592014Nielsenreport:Millennials:BreakingtheMyths(NewYork:Nielsen,2014).Someofthedatain
theNielsenreportcomefromthe2012editionoftheAchieveandCaseFoundationstudycitedbelow.
160studyofthegroupsponsoredbytheCaseFoundation:InspiringtheNextGenerationWorkforce:The
2014MillennialImpactReport(AchieveandtheCaseFoundation,2014),availableat
http://cdn.trustedpartner.com/docs/library/AchieveMCON2013/MIR_2014.pdf.
160Ina“TEDTalk”:ScottHess,“Millennials:WhoTheyAreandWhyWeHateThem”(TEDxSF,June
2011),availableathttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=P-enHH-r_FM.
160InatalkatPrinceton:DavidBrooks,“PoliticsandtheOrganizationKid”(StaffordLittleLecturesat
Prince-tonUniversity,Princeton,NJ,Nov.26,2012),avail-ableat
https://mediacentral.princeton.edu/media/1_b7in7m0e.
161billionaire-founderofLinkedIn:ReidHoffman,TheStart-upofYou:AdapttotheFuture,Investin
Yourself,andTransformYourCareer(NewYork:CrownBusiness,2012).
161Somethingstheyoungdon’tdo:SeeAbbyKiesa,AlexanderP.Orlowski,PeterLevine,Deborah
Both,EmilyHobanKirby,MarkHugoLopez,andKarloBarriosMarcelo,MillennialsTalkPolitics:A
StudyofCollegeStudentPoliticalEngagement(Medford,MA:CenterforInformationandResearch
onCivicLearningandEngagement,Nov.2007).
162moststrikingresultfromtheHERIsurvey:Pryoretal.,AmericanFreshman:FortyYearTrends,33;
andK.Eagan,J.B.Lozano,S.Hurtado,andM.H.Case,TheAmericanFreshman:NationalNorms
Fall2013(LosAngeles:HigherEducationResearchInstitute,UCLA,2013),40.
163In1983,ABCairedatelevisionmovie:TheDayAfter,directedbyNicholasMeyer(NewYork:ABC,
1983).
166Hisspeechesandblogposts:SeepostsbyBillGatesonhttp://www.gatesnotes.com.
167“morallyinarticulate”:See,e.g.,Brooks,“PoliticsandtheOrganizationKid.”AlsoseeDavidBrooks,
“IfItFeelsRight...,”NewYorkTimes,Sept.12,2011.
168HERIsurveydata:Forthemostrecentfigures,seeEaganetal.,AmericanFreshman,40.
169“Imuststudypoliticsandwar”:LetterfromJohnAdamstoAbigailAdams,May12,1780,inAdams
FamilyPapers:AnElectronicArchive,MassachusettsHistoricalSociety,availableat
http://www.masshist.org/digitaladams/.

Acknowledgments

MyfirstdebtistothepresidentandtrusteesofSarahLawrenceCollege,who

askedmetodeliverthecommencementaddresstotheClassof2014.Thinking

aboutthespecialqualitiesofthatwonderfulschool,nestledinthesuburbsof

Manhattan,Idecidedtopresentabriefdefenseofaliberaleducation.Iwas

surprisedbytheresponse,whichwentfarbeyondSarahLawrence,evenbeyond

graduatesofliberalartsprograms.Irealizedthatmanypeoplewerethinking

aboutthesesameissuesandperhapsitwouldbeusefultodevelopmyideas

morefullyandinprint.So,Idecidedtowritethisbook.

That’swhereDrakeMcFeely,myeditoratW.W.Norton,camein.Hewas

instantlyenthusiasticabouttheideaanddecidedtomoveproductionalongata

briskpace,maintaininghisgentlemanlymannerevenwhilehewascrackingthe

whip(ablyassistedinbothregardsbyJeffShreve).Thisismythirdbookwith

Drake,andworkingwithhimhasbeenoneofthegreatprofessionalpleasuresof

mylife.TinaBennett,mywonderfulagent,handledeveryaspectofthebook

withherusualmixtureoftalent,dedication,andcharm.

GavanGideon,freshoutofYaleCollege,helpedmewiththeresearchonthis

book.GavanleapedintothisprojectafterIhadbegunwriting,andhewasable

togetuptospeedsofastitstartledme.Inadditiontobeinganexcellent

researcher,Gavanisalucidwriterandskillededitorandhelpedmeshapethe

finalmanuscript.JohnCookson,whousedtoworkwithmeatCNN,hasbeenan

invaluablehelpaswell,alwaysexpertatfindingnewsourcesofdataandoften

discoveringaninterestingbookoressaythatImighthavemissed.Johnisa

graduateoftheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandColumbiaUniversity.Iftheseare

theproductsofaliberaleducationnowadays,wehavenothingtoworryabout.

Workingonaprojectlikethiswhilehavingadayjobmeansrelyingon

othersformuchhelp.JessicadelPilarorganizedmylifewithanefficiencyand

intelligencethatIcouldnevermatchandagracethatIdon’tpossess.Aftermany

yearsofhelpingme,she’smovedontobiggerandbetterthingsatWashington

UniversityinSt.Louis.MelanieGalvinhassettledinasmyassistantandis

alreadymakingherselfinvaluable.Televisiontakesmoreworkthanmostpeople

realize,andasthepersoninfrontofthecamera,Igettoomuchcredit.Theones

whodeservemuchmorearetheteamatCNNthatproducesmyshow,Fareed

ZakariaGPS:TomGoldstone,RaviAgrawal,SujataThomas,Maite

Amorebieta,DanLogan,JessicaGutteridge,NicoleBoucher,andDanaSherne.

(RaviandSujatahavealsomovedaheadintheircareers.)Inaddition,abig

thankyoutoJeffZuckerforallhisguidanceandhelp.FredHiatt,whorunsthe

WashingtonPost’ssuperbeditorialpages,hasalwaysbeenasourceof

encouragementandsupport,eventhoughheisoftenexasperatedbymyviewson

foreignpolicy.DavidBradleyattheAtlantichasbeenafriend,philosopher,and

guide.

Providinglifesupportismywife,Paula,whohasalwaysencouragedmeto

workonthethingsthatIlove.Shemanagestokeepourfamilyrunningand

thrivingandisnowturningtoherownambitionsandconsiderabletalentsasa

writer(andagraduateofSarahLawrence’sMFAprogram,whichiswhyIwas

invitedtospeakatthecollege).IowehermorethanIcanexpress.

Emersononcewrote,“Itisoneoftheblessingsofoldfriendsthatyoucan

affordtobestupidwiththem.”Ihaveaffordedmyselfthatpleasuremanytimes.

Iturnedfiftyrecentlyand,lookingback,realizedthatwhathasgivenmethe

greatestjoyinlifehasbeenmyfamilyandfriendswhohavesurroundedmewith

companionshipandaffection.Theyoungestmembersinthatgrouparemythree

children,towhomthisbookisdedicated.Mywifesaysthatbeforeyouhave

children,youimaginethatyouwantthemtogrowupandbecomepresidentsand

primeministers.Oncetheyareinfrontofyou,allyouwishforisthattheybe

happyandfulfilled—andlivecloseby!That’smyhopeandprayer.

AlsobyFareedZakaria

ThePost-AmericanWorld

TheFutureofFreedom:IlliberalDemocracy

atHomeandAbroad

FromWealthtoPower:TheUnusualOrigins

ofAmerica’sWorldRole

TheAmericanEncounter:TheUnitedStatesandtheMakingoftheModern

World(coeditor)

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500FifthAvenue,NewYork,N.Y.10110

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W.W.Norton&CompanyLtd.

CastleHouse,75/76WellsStreet,LondonW1T3QT